;/;'"> v \ >. THE ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA ELEVENTH EDITION FIRST edition, published in three volumes, 1768 — 1771. SECOND ten 1777—1784. THIRD eighteen 1788—1797. FOURTH twenty 1801 — 1810. FIFTH twenty 1815—1817. SIXTH twenty 1823—1824. SEVENTH twenty-one 1830—1842. EIGHTH twenty-two 1853 — 1860. NINTH twenty-five 1875—1889. TENTH ninth edition and eleven supplementary volumes, 1902 — 1903. ELEVENTH „ published in twenty-nine volumes, 1910 — 1911. COPYRIGHT in all countries subscribing to the Bern Convention by THE CHANCELLOR, MASTERS AND SCHOLARS of the UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE Ail rights reserved THE ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE AND GENERAL INFORMATION ELEVENTH EDITION VOLUME XXIV SAINTE-CLAIRE DEVILLE to SHUTTLE Cambridge, England: at the University Press New York, 35 West 32nd Street 191 1 R Copyright, in the United States of America. 1911, by The Encyclopaedia Britannica Company INITIALS USED IN VOLUME XXIV. TO IDENTIFY INDIVIDUAL CONTRIBUTORS,! WITH THE HEADINGS OF THE ARTICLES IN THIS VOLUME SO SIGNED. A. A. R * ARTHUR ALCOCK RAMBAUT, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.R.A.S. ( Radcliffe Observer, Oxford. Professor of Astronomy in the University of Dublin -< Schonfeld Eduard and Royal Astronomer of Ireland, 1892-1897. A. Cy. ARTHUR ERNEST COWLEY, M.A., LiTT.D. [Samaritans; Sub-Librarian of the Bodleian Library, Oxford, and Fellow of Magdalen College. \ Seadiah. A. C. G. ALBERT CHARLES LEWIS GOTTHILF GUENTHER, M.A., M.D., PH.D., F.R.S. r Keeper of Zoological Department, British Museum, 1875-1895. Gold Medallist, J Royal Society, 1878. Author of Catalogues of Colubrine Snakes, Batrachia, Salientia, 1 Shark (in part), and Fishes in the British Museum ; &c. L A. E. H. A. E. HOUGHTON. f Re—,,.,, v Domlniruez Formerly Correspondent of the Standard in Spain. Author of Restoration of the •{ oe"^no » wominguez, Bourbons in Spain. [ *TaneiSCO. A. E. J. ARTHUR ERNEST JOLLIFFE, M.A. f Fellow, Tutor and Mathematical Lecturer, Corpus Christi College, Oxford. Senior -{ Series. Mathematical Scholar, 1892. A. F. L. ARTHUR FRANCIS LEACH, M.A. f Barrister-at-Law, Middle Temple. Charity Commissioner for England and Wales. I Formerly Assistant-Secretary of the Board of Education. Fellow of All Souls' | Schools. College, Oxford, 1874-1881. Author of English Schools at the Reformation; &c. I A. F. P. ALBERT FREDERICK POLLARD, M.A., F.R.HiST.S. Professor of English History in the University of London. Fellow of All Souls' College, Oxford. Assistant Editor of the Dictionary of National Biography, l893~-j Sanders, Nicholas. 1901. Lothian Prizeman, Oxford, 1892; Arnold Prizeman, 1898. Author of England under the Protector Somerset ; Henry VIII. ; Life of Thomas Cranmer ; &c. [ A. Ge. SIR ARCHIBALD GEIKIE, K.C.B. f Scotland: Geography and See the biographical article: GEIKIE, SIR ARCHIBALD. \ Geology (in part). A. Go.* REV. ALEXANDER GORDON, M.A. J Saravia, Adrian; Lecturer in Church History in the University of Manchester. I Servetus, Michael. A. H. S. REV. ARCHIBALD HENRY SAYCE, D.D., LL.D., Lirr.D. f Sardanapalus; Sargon; See the biographical article: SAYCE, A. H. \ Sennacherib; Shalmaneser. A. H.-S. SIR A. HouTUM-ScHiNDLER, C.I.E. f Seistan (in part) ; Shiraz; General in the Persian Army. Author of Eastern Persian Irak. \ Shushter. A. J. G. REV. ALEXANDER JAMES GRIEVE, M.A., B.D. Professor of New Testament and Church History, Yorkshire United Independent J Sentuazint The College, Bradford. Sometime Registrar of Madras University, and Member of] Mysore Educational Service. L A. L. ANDREW LANG, LL.D. /Scotland: History; See the biographical article: LANG, ANDREW. | Second Sight. A. M.* REV. ALLAN MENZIES, D.D. f Professor of Divinity and Biblical Criticism, St Mary's College, St Andrews. Author J. Scotland, Church of. of History of Religion ; &c. Editor of Review of Theology and Philosophy. A. M. Cl. AGNES MUMEL CLAY (Mrs Wilde). f Formerly Resident Tutor of Lady Margaret Hall, Oxford. Joint-author of Sources J Senate of Roman History, 133-70 B.C. Sand-grouse; Sandpiper; Scaup; Scoter; Scrub-bird-, Secretary-bird; Seriema; A. N. ALFRED NEWTON, F.R.S. See the biographical article: NEWTON, ALFRED. Shearwater; Sheath bill; Sheldrake; Shoe-bill; Shoveler; Shrike. 1 A complete list, showing all individual contributors, appears in the final volume. V 1993 INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES A. No. A. S. P.-P- B. R.* B. S. P. C. A. G. B. C. El. C. F. A. C. F. B. C. H. C. H.* C. H. Ha. C. J. F. C. L. K. C. M. ADOLF GOTTHARD NOREEN, PH.D. C Professor of Scandinavian Languages at the University of Upsala. Author of J coonj!™.,,,-— t.,, Geschichte der Nordischen Sprachen; Altislandiscke und Altnorwegische Gram- 1 Scandinavian Languages. matik; &c. I ANDREW SETH PRINGLE-PATTISON, M.A., LL.D., D.C.L. ( Professor of Logic and Metaphysics in the University of Edinburgh. Gifford I Scepticism; Lecturer in the University of Aberdeen, 1911. Fellow of the British Academy. | Scholasticism. Author of Man's Place in the Cosmos ; The Philosophical Radicals ; &c. I Founder and First President of \ SavinSs Banks: L United States. Scandinavian Civilization HON. BRADFORD RHODES. Head of Banking Firm of Bradford Rhodes & Co. 34th Street National Bank, New York. BERTHA SURTEES PHILLPOTTS, M.A. (Dublin). Formerly Librarian of, Girton College, Cambridge. SIR CYPRIAN ARTHUR GEORGE BRIDGE, G.C.B. Admiral. Commander-in-Chief, China Station, 1901-1904. Director of Naval J Sea, Command of the; IntelHger.ee, 1889-1894. Author of The Art of Naval Warfare; Sea-Power and other 1 Sea-Power Studies ; &c. [ SIR CHARLES NORTON EDGCUMBE ELIOT, K.C.M.G., LL.D., D.C.L. Vice-Chancellor of Sheffield University. Formerly Fellow of Trinity College, Oxford. H.M.'s Commissioner and Commander-in-Chief for the British East ~( Saka Africa Protectorate; Agent and Consul-General at Zanzibar; Consul-General for German East Africa, 1900-1904. CHARLES FRANCIS ATKINSON. f Formerly Scholar of Queen's College, Oxford. Captain, 1st City of London (Royal •{ Seven Weeks' War (in part) Fusiliers). Author of The Wilderness and Cold Harbour. \_ CHARLES FRANCIS BASTABLE, M.A., LL.D. f Regius Professor of Laws and Professor of Political Economy in the University of J Seiffnioraev Dublin. Author of Public Finance; Commerce of Nations; Theory of International \ C16"'>"»6<'- Trade ; &c. I CHARLES HOSE, F.R.G.S., F.Z.S., D.Sc. I" Jesus College, Cambridge. Formerly Divisional Resident and Member of thej Sai.au/aif Supreme Council of Sarawak. Knight of the Prussian Crown. Author of A \ Descriptive Account of the Mammals of Borneo; &c. l SIR CHARLES HOLROYD. See the biographical article: HOLROYD, SIR C. CARLTON HUNTLEY HAYES, A.M., PH.D. Assistant Professor of History in Columbia University, New York City, of the American Historical Association. Short, Francis Job. Member^ Sforza. LIEUT.-COL. CHARLES JAMES Fox, F.R.G.S. Chief Officer, London Salvage Corps. President of Association of Professional Fire Brigade Officers. Vice-President of National Fire Brigades Union; &c. CHARLES L,ETHBRIDGE KINCSFORD, M.A., F.R.HiST.S., F.S.A. Assistant-Secretary to the. Board of Education. Author of Life of Henry V. pf Chronicles of London, and Stow's Survey of London. Salvage Corps. Salisbury, Thomas de Monta- cute, Earl of; C. Mi. " : C. M. W. C. Pf. C. R. B. C. W. R. D. B. Ma. Editor 1 Shore, Jane; I Shrewsbury, 1st Earl of. CARL THEODOR, MIRBT, D.Tn. Professor of Church History in the University of Marburg. Author of Publizistik' im ZeitallerGregor VII.; QueUen zur Geschichte des Papstthums; &c. CHEDOMILLE MIJATOVICH. Senator of 'the Kingdom of Servia. Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Pleni- . potentiary of the King of Servia to the Court of St James', 1895-1900 and 1902- Sardica, Council of. Servia. SIR CHARLES MOORE WATSON, K.C.M.G., C.B. f Colonel, Royal Engineers. Deputy-Inspector-General of Fortifications, 1896- -j Sepulchre, The Holy. 1902. Served under General Gordon in the Soudan, 1874-1875. L CHRISTIAN PFISTER, D.-is-L. Professor at the Sorbonne, Paris. Chevalier of the Legion of Honour. Etudes sur le regne de Robert le Pieux. Author of J Salic Law. CHARLES RAYMOND BEAZLEY, M.A.. D.LiTT., F.R.G.S., F.R.HiST.S. Professor of Modern History in the University of Birmingham. Formerly Fellow of Merton College, Oxford, and University Lecturer in the History of Geography. • Lothian Prizeman, Oxford, 1889. Lowell Lecturer, Boston, 1908. Author of Henry the Navigator ; The Dawn of Modern Geography ; &c. CHARLES WALKER ROBINSON, C.B., D.C.L. Major-General (retired). Assistant Military Secretary, Headquarters of the Army, 1890-1892. Lieut.-Governor and Secretary, Royal Military Hospital, Chelsea, ' 1895-1898. Author of Strategy of the Peninsular War; &c. L DUNCAN BLACK MACDONALD, M.A., D.D. c Professor of Semitic Languages, Hartford Theological Seminary, Hartford, Conn. I Author of Development of Muslim Theology, Jurisprudence and Constitutional | Theory; Selections from Ibn Khaldun; Religious Attitude and Life in Islam; &c. L Sanuto, Marino; Schiltberger, Johann. Salamanca: Baltic, 1812. INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES vn D. F. T. D. G. H. DONALD FRANCIS TOVEY. (" cc»,erzo. Author of Essays in Musical Analysis: comprising The Classical Concerto, The-\ Goldberg Variations, and analyses of many other classical works. l_ Serenade. DAVID GEORGE HOGARTH, M.A. f Keeper of the Ashmolean Museum, Oxford, and Fellow of Magdalen College. Fellow Samsun; Sardis; of the British Academy. Excavated at Paphos, 1888; Naucratis, 1899 and 1903 ; -< Scala Nuova' 1904-1905. Assiut, 1906-1907. Director, British School at Athens, oohliomaT V Ephesus, 1897-1900. Director, Cretan Exploration Fund, 1899. Schliemann, Heinrich. D. H. D. 0. E. A. M. E. B. T. E. C. B. E. F. E.G. E. Gr. E. H. B. E. H. M. E. J. D. E. K. C. Ed. M. E. M. T. DAVID HANNAY. Formerly British Vice-Consul at Barcelona. Navy ; Life of Emilia Castelar ; &c. Author of Short History of the Royal Saints, Battle of the; St Vincent, Earl of; St Vincent, Battle of; • Santa Cruz, Marquis of; Seamanship; Seven Years' War: Naval Operations. E.G.* E. R. B. E. Wa. DOUGLAS OWEN. f Barrister-at-Law, Inner Temple. Lecturer at the Royal Naval War College, Portsmouth, and at London School of Economics. Hon. Secretary and Treasurer J Shipping of the Society of Nautical Research. Author of Declaration of War; Belligerents and Neutrals; Ports and Docks; &c. EDWARD ALFRED MINCHIN, M.A., F.Z.S. c Professor of Protozoology in the University of London. Formerly Fellow of Merton J SevDhomedusae College, Oxford, and Jodrell Professor of Zoology and Comparative Anatomy, | yy University College, London. EDWARD BURNETT TYLOR, D.C.L., LL.D. See the biographical article: TYLOR, EDWARD BURNETT. RT. REV. EDWARD CUTHBERT BUTLER, M.A., O.S.B., Lirr.D. Abbot of Downside Abbey, Bath. Author of " The Lausiac History of Palladius ' in Cambridge Texts and Studies. RT. HON. SIR EDWARD FRY. See the biographical article: FRY, SIR EDWARD. EDMUND GOSSE, LL.D., D.C.L. See the biographical article: GOSSE, EDMUND. ERNKST ARTHUR GARDNER, M.A. See the biographical article: GARDNER, PERCY. SIR EDWARD HERBERT BUNBURY, Bart., M.A., F.R.G.S. (d. 1895). M.P. for Bury St Edmunds, 1847-1852. Author of A History of Ancient Geography; &c. ELLIS HOVELL MINNS, M.A. University Lecturer in Palaeography, Cambridge. Lecturer and Assistant Librarian at Pembroke College, Cambridge. Formerly Fellow of Pembroke College. EDWARD JOSEPH DENT, M.A., MUS.BAC. Formerly Fellow of King's College, Cambridge. and Works. , Salutations. - Servites. -: Selborne, 1st Earl of. f Samain, Albert Victor; \ Sermon. l Samos (in part). 1 Samos (in part). J Sarmatae; I Scythia. Author of A. Scarlatti: his Life Scarlatti, Alessandro. EDMUND KERCHEVER CHAMBERS. Assistant Secretary, Board of Education. Sometime Scholar of Corpus Christi College, Oxford. Chancellor's English Essayist, 1891. Author of The Medieval -j Shakespeare. Stage. Editor of the "Red Letter" Shakespeare; Donne's Poems; Vaughan's Poems; Sec. EDUARD MEYER, PH.D., D.Lrrr., LL.D. c c ,. -.,«, Professor of Ancient History in the University of Berlin. Author of Geschichle des J „ , «S, oairap, Allerthums; Geschichte des alien Aegyptens; Die Israeliten und Hire Nachbarstamme. [ Seleucia; Snapur l.-III. SIR EDWARD MAUNDE THOMPSON, G.C.B., I.S.O., D.C.L., Lrrr.D., LL.D. Director and Principal Librarian, British Museum, 1898-1909. Sandars Reader in Bibliography, Cambridge University, 1895-1896. Hon. Fellow of University College, Oxford. Correspondent of the Institute of France and of the Royal Prussian < Academy of Sciences. Author of Handbook of Greek and Latin Palaeography. Editor of Chronicon Angliae. Joint-editor of publications of the Palaeographical Society, the New Palaeographical Society, and of the Facsimile of the Laurentian Sophocles. Seals; Shorthand: Greek and Roman Tachygraphy. EDMUND OWEN, F.R.C.S., LL.D., D.Sc. r Consulting Surgeon to St Mary's Hospital, London, and to the Children's Hospital, J Scalp: Surgery; Great Ormond Street, London. Chevalier of the Legion of Honour. Author of ] Shock. A Manual of A natomy for Senior Students. EDWYN ROBERT BEVAN, M.A. f New College, Oxford. Author of The House of Seleucus; Jerusalem under the High \ Seleucid Dynasty. Priests. REV. EDMOND WARRE, M.A., D.D., D.C.L., C.B., C.V.O. f shi Hi.lnrv ln the mention Provost of Eton. Hon. Fellow of Balliol College, Oxford. Headmaster of Eton \ st"V- wslorylo the Invention College, 1884-1905. Author of Grammar of Rowing; &c. {_ o) Steamships. F. J. G. viii INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES F. E. Br. REV. FRANK EDWARD BRIGHTMAN, M.A., PH.D., D.Lrrr. f Fellow and Tutor of Magdalen College, Oxford. Prebendary of Lincoln Cathedral. I Pusey Librarian, Oxford, 1884-1903. Author of Liturgies: Eastern and Western; j &c. I F. G. M. B. FREDERICK GEORGE MEESON BECK, M.A. f Fellow and Lecturer of Clare College, Cambridge. \ F. G. P. FREDERICK GYMER PARSONS, F.R.C.S., F.Z.S., F.R.ANTHROP.INST. . Vice-President, Anatomical Society of Great Britain and Ireland. Lecturer on I Anatomy at St Thomas's Hospital and the London School of Medicine for Women, | London. Formerly Hunterian Professor at the Royal College of Surgeons. I MAJOR-GENERAL SIR FREDERICK JOHN GOLDSMID. Jc«i«*«.,/- ,\ See the biographical article : GOLDSMID (family). \ a n (tn ?an>- F. LI. G. FRANCIS LLEWELLYN GRIFFITH, M.A., PH.D., F.S.A. fsais; Reader in Egyptology, Oxford University. Editor of the Archaeological Survey Scarab* and Archaeological Reports of the Egypt Exploration Fund. Fellow of Imperial •< _ German Archaeological Institute. Author of Stories of the High Priests of Memphis ; seraPls5 &c. [Sesostris. F. N. M. COL. FREDERIC NATUSCH MAUDE, C.B. • f Sedan: Battle of; Lecturer in Military History, Manchester University. Author of War and the\ Seven Weeks' War (in part); World's Policy; The Leipzig Campaign; The Jena Campaign; &c. I Seven Years' War (in part). F. R. C. FRANK R. CANA. /St Helena (in part); Author of South Africa from the Great Trek to the Unton. l Senegal' Senussi F. S. FRANCIS STORR. Trinity College, Cambridge. Editor of the Journal of Education, London. Officier •< Sand, George. d'Acaddmie, Paris. L F. W. R.* FREDERICK WILLIAM RUDLER, I.S.O., F.G.S. f Sanohire. Curator and Librarian of the Museum of Practical Geology, London, 1879-1902. •{ President of the Geologists' Association, 1887-1889. I Serpentine. G. A. B. GEORGE A. BOTJLENGER, D.Sc., F.R.S. f In charge of the Collections of Reptiles and Fishes, Department of Zoology, British 1 Salmon and Salraonidac. Museum. Vice-President of the Zoological Society of London. G. C. T. B. SIR GEORGE CHRISTOPHER TROUT BARTLEY, K.C.B. (1842-1910). f Founderof the National Penny Bank. M.P. for North Islington, !885-i9o6. Author^ Savings Banks (in f>nrC\ of Schools fjr the People ; Provident Knowledge Papers ; &c. [ G. D. GEORGE DOBSON. f -,ltvlrB,, Mioliai,, Author of Russia's Railway Advance into Central Asia; &c. \ M'WKOV, BUCHMl. G. E. D. GEORGE EDWARD DOBSON, M.A., M.B., F.Z.S., F.R.S. (1848-1895). f Army Medical Department, 1868-1888. Formerly Curator of the Royal J „. Victoria Museum, Netley. Author of Monograph of the Asiatic Chiroptera, &c. ; 1 Bnrew- A Monograph of the Insectivora, Systematic and Anatomical. [ G. G. S. GEORGE GREGORY SMITH, M.A. f Scotland. / ,>,„/„,,,. Professor of English Literature, Queen's University, Belfast. Author of The Days J. ° of James IV.; The Transition Period; Specimens of Middle Scots, &c. [ Scott- Alexander. G. H. Bo. REV. GEORGE HERBERT Box, M.A. r Rector of Sutton Sandy, Beds. Formerly Hebrew Master, Merchant Taylors' School, J shekinah London. Lecturer in the Faculty of Theology, University of Oxford, 1908-1909. 1 Author of Translation of Book of Isaiah ; &c. G. Sa. GEORGE SAINTSBURY, LL.D., D.C.L. f Saint-Simon, Due de; See the biographical article: SAINTSBURY, GEORGE EDWARD BATEMAN. ( Sevigne, Madame de. G. W. R. MAJOR GEORGE WILLIAM REDWAY. / Seven Days' Battle; Author of The War of Secession, 1861-1862; Fredericksburg: a Study in War. \ Shenandoah Valley Campaigns. G. W. T. REV. GRIFFITHES WHEELER THATCHER, M.A., B.D. f shahrastani; Warden of Camden College, Sydney, N.S.W. Formerly Tutor in Hebrew and Old •{ QUJ-I*- Testament History at Mansfield College, Oxford. I SI "s- H. A. R. HENRY A. ROWLAND. f . ,. -. . , „ See the biographical article: ROWLAND, HENRY AUGUSTUS. \ -*( Salisbury, Marquess of; H. Ch. HUGH CHISHOLM, M.A. Formerly Scholar of Corpus Christi College, Oxford. Editor of the nth edition of • the Encyclopaedia Britannica; Co-editor of the loth edition. H. De. REV. HIPPOLYTE DELEHAYE, S. Bollandist. Joint-editor of the Acta Sanctorum; and the Analecta Bollandiana. Shakespeare: The Shakespeare- Bacon Theory; Sherbrookc, Viscount. Sebastian, St; Sergius, St. H. F. G. HANS FRIEDRICH GADOW, F.R.S., PH.D. Strickland Curator and Lecturer on Zoology in the University of Cambridge. Author -s Sauropsida. of " Amphibia and Reptiles " in the Cambridge Natural History; &c. H. F. T. REV. HENRY FANSHAWE TOZER, M.A., F.R.G.S. f Hon. Fellow, formerly Fellow and Tutor of Exeter College, Oxford. Fellow of the British Academy. Corresponding Member of the Historical Society of Greece, -j Santorin. Author of History of Ancient Geography; Classical Geography; Lectures on the Geography of Greece ; &c. INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES IX H. L. H. H. R. T. I. A. J. A. M. J. A. PI. J. A. R. J. Bt. J. B. A. I.E. J. E. S.* J. F. S. J. G. Fr. J. G. H. J. G. K. J. G. R. J. G. Sc. J. G. Si. J. H. A. H. J. H. M. J. H. R. J. HI. R. {sepsis. | Shakespeare: Bibliography. HARRIET L. HENNESSY, M.D. (Brux.), L.R.C.P.I., L.R.C.S.I. HENRY RICHARD TEDDER, F.S.A. Secretary and Librarian of the Athenaeum Club, London. ISRAEL ABRAHAMS, M.A. f Reader in Talmudic and Rabbinic Literature in the University of Cambridge. J Samuel 01 Nehardea; Formerly President, Jewish Historical Society of England. Author of A Short | Shekel. History of Jewish Literature ; Jewish Life in the Middle Ages ; Judaism ;&c. I JAMES ALEXANDER MANSON. Formerly Literary Editor of the Daily Chronicle, and Chief Editor, Cassell & Co., Ltd. -| Scotland: Geography (in part). Author of The Bowler's Handbook ; &c. L JOHN ARTHUR PLATT, M.A. • f Professor of Greek in University College, London. Formerly Fellow of Trinity -s Sappho. College, Cambridge. Author of editions of Homer's Iliad and Odyssey ; &c. L VERY REV. JOSEPH ARMITAGE ROBINSON, M.A., D.D. Dean of Wells. Dean of Westminster, 1902-1911. Fellow of the British Academy. Chaplain-in-Ordinary to the King. Hon. Fellow of Christ's College, • Cambridge. Norrisian Professor of Divinity in the University of Cambridge, 1893- 1899. Author of Some Thoughts on the Incarnation; &c. JAMES BARTLETT. f Scaffold: Lecturer on Construction, Architecture, Sanitation, Quantities, &c., King's College, I RAWera»e. London. Member of Society of Architects, Institute of Junior Engineers, Quantity | * B ' Surveyors' Association. Author of Quantities. I Snoring. JOSEPH BEAVINGTON ATKINSON. f Formerly Art-critic of the Saturday Review. Author of An Art Tour in the Northern J. Schadow. Capitals of Europe; Schools of Modern Art in Germany. \_ H. JULIUS EGGELING, PH.D. f Professor of Sanskrit and Comparative Philology, Edinburgh University. Formerly J Sanskrit. Secretary and Librarian to the Royal Asiatic Society. JOHN EDWIN SANDYS, M.A., LITT.D., LL.D. Public Orator in the University of Cambridge. Cambridge. Fellow of the British Academy. Scholarship; &c. Scillitan Martyrs. Fellow of St John's College, Author of History of Classical ' Scaliger (in part). REV. JOHN FREDERICK SMITH. Author of Studies in Religion under German Masters; translated G. H. A. von- Ewald's Commentaries on the Prophets of the Old Testament and the Book of Job. JAMES GEORGE FRAZER, M.A., D.C.L., LL.D., LITT.D. Professor of Social Anthropology, Liverpool University. Fellow of Trinity College, • Cambridge. Fellow of the British Academy. Author of The Golden Bough ; &c. JOSEPH G. HORNER, A.M.I.MECH.E. Author of Plating and Boiler Making; Practical Metal Turning; &c. Schleiermacher (in part). Saturn (in part). Screw. JOHN GRAHAM KERR, M.A., F.R.S. f Regius Professor of Zoology in the University of Glasgow. Formerly Demonstrator se|aci.jftn . in Animal Morphology in the University of Cambridge. Fellow of Christ's College, J Cambridge, 1898-1904. Walsingham Medallist, 1898. Neill Prizeman, Royal Shark (in part). Society of Edinburgh, 1904. JOHN GEORGE ROBERTSON, M.A., PH.D. r Professor of German Language and Literature, University of London. Editor of the J Modern Language Journal. Author of History of German Literature ; Schiller after "j Schiller. a Century; &c. SIR JAMES GEORGE SCOTT, K.C.I.E. f Superintendent and Political Officer, Southern Shan States. Author of Burma; J Salween: River; The Upper Burma Gazetteer. [ Shan States REV. JAMES GILLILAND SIMPSON, M.A. f Canon of St Paul's, London. Principal of Leeds Clergy School and Lecturer of Leeds J Scotland, Episcopal Church of. Parish Church, 1900-1910. JOHN HENRY ARTHUR HART, M.A. Fellow, Theological Lecturer and Librarian, St John's College, Cambridge. Director I ~\ -! Scribes. JOHN HENRY MIDDLETON, M.A., LITT.D., F.S.A., D.C.L. (1846-1896). Slade Professor of Fine Art in the University of Cambridge, 1886-1895. of the Fitzwilham Museum, Cambridge, 1889-1892. Art Director of the South ^ Kensington Museum, 1892-1896. Author of The Engraved Gems of Classical Times; Sculpture (in part). Illuminated Manuscripts in Classical and Mediaeval Times. JOHN HORACE ROUND M.A., LL.D. f c Balliol College, Oxford. Author of Feudal England; Studies in Peerage and Family! ° History; Peerage and Pedigree. [ Serjeanty. JOHN HOLLAND ROSE, M.A., LITT.D. f Christ's College, Cambridge. Lecturer on Modern History to the Cambridge J Savarv University Local Lectures Syndicate. Author o/ Life of Napoleon I. ; Napoleonic | Studies ; The Development of the European Nations ; The Life of Pitt ; &c. L X J. H. V. C. J. K. I. J. L. M. J. M. M. J. P.-B. J. S. F. J. S. R. J. T. Be. J. T. C. J. T. S.* J.W. J. W. He. K. G. J. K. S. L. Bo. L. J. S. L.V. L. V.* H. A. C. INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES JOHN HENRY VERRINDER CROWE. r Lieut.-Colonel, Royal Artillery. Commandant of the Royal Military College of Canada. Formerly _Chief Instructor in Military Topography and Military History -j Shipka Pass. and Tactics at the Royal Military Academy, Woolwich. Russo-Turkish War, 1877-1878; &c. JOHN KELLS INGRAM, LL.D. See the biographical article: INGRAM, JOHN KELLS. Author of Epitome of the / Say, Jean Baptiste; I Senior, Nassau. JOHN LINTON MYRES, M.A., F.S.A., F.R.G.S. Wykeham Professor of Ancient History in the University of Oxford, and Fellow of Magdalen College. Formerly Gladstone Professor of Greek and Lecturer in Ancient I galamis' C\t>rus Geography, University of Liverpool. Lecturer in Classical Archaeology in the ' University of Oxford, and Student and Tutor of Christ Church. Author of A History of Rome ; &c. JOHN MALCOLM MITCHELL. f Sehelling (in part) ; Sometime Scholar of Queen's College, Oxford. Lecturer in Classics, East London •{ Shaftesbury, 3rd Earl of College (University of London). Joint-editor of Grote's History of Greece. [ (in part). JAMZS GEORGE JOSEPH PENDEREL-BRODHURST. Editor of the Guardian, London. -{ Sheraton, Thomas. JOHN SMITH FLETT, D.Sc., F.G.S. fSand; Sandstone; Petrographer to the Geological Survey of the United Kingdom. Formerly Lecturer J c.,,....!!*.. ID h \ on Petrology in Edinburgh University. Neill Medallist of the Royal Society of 1 Edinburgh. Bigsby Medallist of the Geological Society of London. L Scnorl. JAMES SMITH REID, M.A., LL.D., Lrrr.D. f Professor of Ancient History and Fellow and Tutor of Gonville and Caius College,' Cambridge. Hon. Fellow, formerly Fellow and Lecturer of Christ's College. 1 Severus, Lucius Septimius. Browne's and Chancellor's Medals. Editor of editions of Cicero's Academia; De Amicitia; &c. (St Petersburg (in part) ; Sakhalin (in part) ; Samara: Government (in part) ; Samarkand: City (in part) ; Saratov: Government (in part). JOSEPH THOMAS CUNNINGHAM, M.A., F.Z.S. r Lecturer on Zoology at the South-Western Polytechnic, London. Formerly Fellow I Scaphopoda; of University College, Oxford. Assistant Professor of Natural History in the | Sea-Serpent (in part). University of Edinburgh. Naturalist to the Marine Biological Association. L JAMES THOMSON SHOTWELL, PH.D. Professor of History in Columbia University, New York City. JAMES WILLIAMS, M.A., D.C.L., LL.D. All Souls' Reader in Roman Law in the University of Oxford, and Fellow of Lincoln College. Author of Wills and Succession ; &c. JAMES WYCLIFFE HEADLAM, M.A. f Saint-Simon, Comte de \ (in part). Seamen, Laws relating to; Sheriff. Staff Inspector of Secondary Schools under the Board of Education, London. Formerly Fellow of King's College, Cambridge. Professor of Greek and Ancient -j Schmerling, Anton von. History at the German )ueen's College, London. Empire; &c. Author of Bismarck and the foundation of KINGSLEY GARLAND JAYNE. Sometime Scholar of Wadham College, Oxford. Author of Vasco da Gama and his Successors. KATHLEEN SCHLESINGER. Editor of the Portfolio of Musical Archaeology. Orchestra. Matthew Arnold Prizeman, 1903. - Salamanca. Author of The Instruments of the LioNCE BENEDITE. Keeper of the Musee National du Luxembourg, Paris. Chevalier of the Legion < Honour. President of the Societe des Peintres orientalistes francais. Author Histoire des Beaux Arts; &c. Sambuca; Saxhorn; Saxophone; Serpent: Music; Shawm; Shofar. f J Sculpture: Modern French. LEONARD JAMES SPENCER, M.A. f Assistant in the Department of Mineralogy, British Museum. Formerly Scholar J Scapolite; of Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge, and Harkness Scholar. Editor of the 1 Scolecite. Mineralogical Magazine. [ LINDA MARY VILLARI. See the biographical article: VILLARI, PASQUALE. LUIGI VILLARI. Italian Foreign Office (Emigration Department). spondent in the East of Europe. Italian Vice-Cons delphia, 1907, and Boston, U.S.A., 1907-1910. Author of Italian Life in Town I and Country; Sic. I MAURICE ARTHUR CANNEY, M.A. (" Assistant Lecturer in Semitic Languages in the University of Manchester. Formerly J cphpnkpl Exhibitioner of St John's College, Oxford. Pusey and Ellertpn Hebrew Scholar, 1 Oxford, 1892; Kennicott Hebrew Scholar, 1895; Houghton Syriac Prize, 1896. Savonarola. Formerly Newspaper Corre- Italian Vice-Consul in New Orleans, 1906, Phila- -| Savoy, House of. INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES xi M. Be. MALCOLM BELL. r Author of Pewter Plate ; &c. \ Sheffield Plate. M. Bt. MICHAEL BRETT. J Barrister-at-Law, Middle Temple. \ Salvage: Military. M. D. Ch. SIR MACKENZIE DALZELL CHALMERS, K.C.B., C.S.I., M.A. (" Trinity College, Oxford, Barrister-at-Law. Formerly Permanent Under- Secretary I of State for the Home Department, London, and First Parliamentary Counsel to | Sa'e of Goods the Treasury. Author of Digest of the Law of Bills of Exchange; &c. I M. Ha. MARCUS HARTOG, M.A., D.Sc., F.L.S. f Professor of Zoology, University College, Cork. Author of " Protozoa," in the •{ Sarcodina. Cambridge Natural History; and papers for various scientific journals. I M. H. S. MARION H. SPIELMANN, F.S.A. f Formerly Editor of the Magazine of Art. Member of Fine Art Committee of Inter- national Exhibitions of Brussels, Paris, Buenos Aires, Rome and the Franco- I Sculpture (in tart} • British Exhibition, London. Author of History of "Punch"; British Portrait] ch~if >> , -, Painting to the Opening of the iQth Century; Works of G. F. Watts, R.A.; British 'naKesPeare. Portraits. Sculpture and Sculptors of To-Day; Henriette Ronner; &c. M. Ja. MORRIS JASTROW, PH.D. f Professor of Semitic Languages, University of Pennsylvania. Author of Religion -\ Shamash of the Babylonians and Assyrians; &c. M. 0. B. C. MAXIMILIAN OTTO BISMARCK CASPARI, M.A. r Reader in Ancient History in London University. Lecturer in Greek in Birmingham -! Salamis; University, 1905-1908. [ Samos (in part). M. P.* LEON JACQUES MAXIME PRINET. r Auxiliary of the Institute of France (Academy of Moral and Political Sciences).-^ St Nectaire; Author of L' Industrie du sel en Franche-Comte. (_ St Pol, Counts of. M. T. H. M. TH. HOUTSMA. f Professor of Semitic Languages in the University of Utrecht. \ Seljuks. 0. A. OSMUND AIRY, M.A., LL.D. f H.M Inspector ol Schools and Inspector of Training Colleges, Board of Education, J London. Author of Louis XIV. and the English Restoration; Charles II.; &c. 1 SnaitesDury, 1st Earl of. Editor of the Lauderdale Papers ; &c. l_ f St Petersburg (in part) ; P. A. K. PRINCE PETER ALEXEIVITCH KROPOTKIN. I Sakhalin (in part) ; See the biographical article: KROPOTKIN, PRINCE, P. A. Samara: Government (in part); Samarkand: City (in part) ; [ Saratov: Government (in part). P. C. M. PETER CHALMERS MITCHELL, M.A., F.R.S., F.Z.S., D.Sc., LL.D. r Secretary of the Zoological Society of London. University Demonstrator in Com- J parative Anatomy and Assistant to Linacre Professor at Oxford, 1888-1891. | "eX- Author of Outlines of Biology ; &c. [ P. G. PERCY GARDNER, LL.D., F.S.A., D.LiTT. / See the biographical article: GARDNER, PERCY. \ Scopas. P. G. K. PAUL GEORGE KONODY. r Art Critic of the Observer and the Daily Mail. Formerly Editor of the Artist. -I Sculpture (in tiarl) Author of The Art of Walter Crane ; Velasquez, Life and Work ; &c. 1 P. St. PERCY SOMERS TYRINGHAM STEPHENS, J.P. f Contributor to the Badminton Magazine. \ Shooting. P. Vi. PAUL VINOGRADOFF, D.C.L., LL.D. J See the biographical article: VINOGRADOFF, PAUL. "^Serfdom. P. Wa. SIR PHILLIP WATTS, K.C.B., F.R.S., LL.D. Director of Naval Construction for the British Navy. Chairman of the Federation J Smp: Hlstory smc'e tlte lmen- of Shipbuilders. Naval Architect and Director of War Shipbuilding Department ] ti°n of Steamships; of Sir W. G. Armstrong, Whitworth & Co., Ltd., 1885-1901. [ Shipbuilding. R. Ad. ROBERT ADAMSON, LL.D. / See the biographical article : ADAMSON, ROBERT. \ SChellmg (in part). R. A. S. M. ROBERT ALEXANDER STEWART MACALISTER, M.A., F.S.A. f Samaria' St John's College, Cambridge. Director of Excavations for the Palestine Ex-i c ploration Fund. \ Shechem. R. A. W. COLONEL ROBERT ALEXANDER WAHAB, C.B., C.M.G., C.I.E. f Formerly H.M. Commissioner, Aden Boundary Delimitation. Served with Tirah J Expeditionary Force, 1897-1898, and on the Anglo-Russian Boundary Com- 1 Sana. mission, Pamirs, 1895. [ R. C. C. RICHARD COPLEY CHRISTIE. /c.«u.,,. c * A See the biographical article: CHRISTIE, RICHARD COPLEY. \ sc R. D. H. ROBERT DREW HICKS, M.A. f s / • ,, t} Fellow, formerly Lecturer in Classics, Trinity College, Cambridge. \ P R. G. RICHARD GARNETT, LL.D. fSarpi, Paolo; See the biographical article: GARNETT, RICHARD. \ Satire. R. I. P. REGINALD INNES POCOCK, F.Z.S. f scornion. Superintendent of the Zoological Gardens, London. \ xii INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES R. J. M. RONALD JOHN McNEiLL, M.A. Christ Church, Oxford. Barrister-at-Law. Formerly Editor of the St James's Gazette (London). St John, Oliver; St Leger, Sir Anthony; Scroggs, Sir William; Serope Family; Ship-money; Shrewsbury, Duke of. R. L.* RICHARD LYDEKKER, F.R.S., F.G.S., F.Z.S. Member of the Staff of the Geological Survey of India, 1874-1882. Author of I Seal (in part); Catalogue of Fossil Mammals, Reptiles and Birds in the British Museum; The Deer~\ Serow; Sheep (in part}. of all Lands; The Game Animals of Africa; &c. ' I R. L. A. SIR REGINALD LAURENCE ANTROBUS, K.C.M.G. f Crown Agent for the Colonies, London. Assistant Under-Secretary of State for-1, St Helena (in part). the Colonies, 1898-1909. I R. N. B. ROBERT NISBET BAIN (d. 1909). c Assistant Librarian, British Museum, 1883-1909. Author of Scandinavia: The c.),,.,*...! Uanni Political History of Denmark, Norway and Sweden, 1513-1900; The First Romanovs, J. ° 8U> "8 D 1613-1725; Slavonic Europe: The Political History of Poland and Russia from Shanrov, Peter. 1460 to 1796 ; &c. R. P.* ROBERT PEELE. f shaft-sinkinir Professor of Mining in Columbia University, New York. \ W DKm6- R. S. C. ROBERT SEYMOUR CONWAY, M.A., D.LITT. f Professor of Latin and Indo-European Philology in the University of Manchester. J Formerly Professor of Latin in University College, Cardiff; and Fellow of Gonville 1 and Caius College, Cambridge. Author of The Italic Dialects. [ R. W. ROBERT WALLACE, F.R.S. (Edin.), F.L.S. Professor of Agriculture and Rural Economy at Edinburgh University, and Garton. Lecturer on Colonial and Indian Agriculture. Professor of Agriculture, R.A.C., I gha«n (I'M -b- Hutcheson ; &c. T. G. C. THOMAS GILBERT CARVER, M.A., K.C. (1848-1906). f Formerly Judge of County Courts. Author of On the Law relating to the Carriage J. Salvage. of Goods by Sea. [ T. K. THOMAS KIRKUP, M.A., LL.D. f Saint-Simon, Comte de Author of An Inquiry into Socialism; Primer of Socialism; &c. ~|_ (,'n part). T. K. C. REV. THOMAS KELLY CHEYNE, D.LITT., D.C.L., D.D. /Seraphim. See the biographical article: CHEYNE, T. K. \ T. L. H. SIR THOMAS LITTLE HEATH, K.C.B., D.Sc. f Assistant Secretary to the Treasury. Formerly Fellow of Trinity College, Cam- ^ Serenus Of Antissa. bridge. Author of Treatise on Conic Sections ; &c. INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES Xlll Th. H. T.T. T. W. F. T. W. R. D. W. A. B. C. W. A. D. W. A. P. W. Ba. W. C. D. W. W. E. A. A. W. E. Ho. W. Fr. W. F. K. W. Hu. W. H. Be. W. H. F. W. H. Ha. W. L. F. W. L. G. W. L.-W. THEODOR NSLDEKE. See the biographical article: NOLDEKE, THEODOR. SIR TRAVERS Twiss, K.C., D.C.L., F.R.S. See the biographical article: Twiss, SIR TRAVERS. | Semitic Languages, I Sea Laws. THOMAS WILLIAM Fox. r Professor of Textiles in the University of Manchester. Author of Mechanics ofJ, Shuttle. Weaving. [ THOMAS WILLIAM RHYS DAVIDS, LL.D., PH.D. Professor of Comparative Religion, Manchester University. President of the Pali SSnchi; Text Society. Fellow of the British Academy. Secretary and Librarian of the i Sariputta; Royal Asiatic Society, 1885-^1902. Author of Buddhism; Sacred Books of the Sasana Vamsa Buddhists ; Early Buddhism ; Buddhist India ; Dialogues of the Buddha ; &c. REV. WILLIAM AUGUSTUS BREVOORT COOLIDGE, M.A., F.R.G.S., PH.D. Fellow of Magdalen College, Oxford. Professor of English History, St David's College, Lampeter, 1880^1881. Author of Guide du Haul Dauphine; The Range of the Todi; Guide to Grindelwald; Guide to Switzerland; The Alps in Nature and in History; &c. Editor of the Alpine Journal, 1880-1881 ; &c. WILLIAM ARCHIBALD DUNNING, PH.D., LL.D. Lieber Professor of History and Political Philosophy, Columbia University, New York. Author of Essays on the Civil War and Reconstruction ; A History of Political ' Theories. WALTER ALISON PHILLIPS, M.A. Formerly Exhibitioner of Merton College and Senior Scholar of St John's College, . Oxford. Author of Modern Europe; &c. WILLIAM BACHER, PH.D. Professor of Biblical Science at the Rabbinical Seminary, Budapest. St Gall: Canton; St Gall: Town; St Gotthard Pass; St Moritz; Sarnen; Saussure, Horace Benedict de; Savoie; Schaffhausen: Canton; Schaffhausen: Town; Scheuchzer, Johann; Schwyz; Sempach. Sherman, John. :St John of Jerusalem, Order of; Schleswig-Holstein Question. Shammai. WILLIAM CECIL DAMPIER WHETHAM, M.A., F.R.S. Fellow and Tutor of Trinity College, Cambridge. Recent Development of Physical Science ; &c. Author of Theory of Solution ; J. Science. WILLIAM EDMUND ARMYTAGE AXON, LL.D. r Formerly Deputy Chief Librarian of the Manchester Free Libraries. On Literary I coif..-.! Staff of Manchester Guardian, 1874-1905. Member of the Gorsedd, with the bardic 1 name of Manceinion. Author of Annals of Manchester; &c. Director of the J Sea-Serpent (in part). WILLIAM EVANS HOYLE, M.A., D.Sc., F.Z.S., M.R.C.S. Christ Church, Oxford. Director of the National Museum of Wales. Manchester Museum, 1889-1899. WILLIAM FREAM, LL.D. (d. 1906). f Formerly Lecturer on Agricultural Entomology, University of Edinburgh, and J Sheep (in part). Agricultural Correspondent of The Times. WINIFRED F. KNOX. Author of The Court of a Saint. J Saladin. REV. WILLIAM HUNT, M.A., Lrrr.D. President of the Royal Historical Society, 1905-1909. Author of History of the e-_i-w ci, i English Church, 597-1066; The Church of England in the Middle Ages; Political'] Bley> slr J- History of England, 1760-1801. WILLIAM HENRY BENNETT, M.A., D.D., D.LITT. Professor of Old Testament Exegesis in New and Formerly Fellow of St John's College, Cambridge, and College, Sheffield. Author of Religion of the Post-Exilic Prophets; &c. SIR WILLIAM HENRY FLOWER, F.R.S. See the biographical article: FLOWER, SIR W. H. Hackney Colleges, London. J Lecturer in Hebrew at Firth 1 Seth. t Seal (in part). r WILLIAM HENRY HADOW, M.A., Mus.Doc. Principal of Armstrong College, Newcastle-on-Tyne. Formerly Fellow and Tutor c.i.iihai-1 of Worcester College, Oxford. Member of Council, Royal College of Music. Editor 1 " of Oxford History of Music. Author of Studies in Modern Music ; &c. WALTER LYNWOOD FLEMING, A.M., PH.D. c Professor of History in Louisiana State University. Editor of Documentary History J Secession. of Reconstruction ; &c. WILLIAM LAWSON GRANT, M.A. r Professor of History at Queen's University, Kingston, Canada. Formerly Beit] St John: Canada; Lecturer in Colonial History at Oxford University. Editor of Acts of the Privy] St Pierre and Miquelon. Council (Colonial Series) ; Canadian Constitutional Development. SIR WILLIAM LEE- WARNER, M.A., G.C.S.I. C Member of the Council of India. Formerly Secretary in the Political and Secret J Sayyid Ahmad Khan Sir Department of the India Office. Author of Life of the Marquis of Dalhousie ; j Memoirs of Field-Marshal Sir Henry Wylie Norman ; &c. I INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES XIV W. M. WILLIAM MINTO, M.A. See the biographical article : MINTO, WILLIAM. W. M. R. WILLIAM MICHAEL ROSSETTI. See the biographical article: ROSSETTI, DANTE G. W. P. A. LizuT.-CoLONEL WILLIAM PATRICK ANDERSON, M.lNST.C.E., F.R.G.S. Chief-Engineer, Department of Marine and Fisheries of Canada. Member of the Geographic Board of Canada. Past President of Canadian Society of Civil Engineers. W. R. S. WILLIAM ROBERTSON SMITH, LL.D. See the biographical article: SMITH, W. R. W. T. Ca. WILLIAM THOMAS CALMAN, D.Sc., F.Z.S. Assistant in charge of Crustacea, Natural History Museum, South Kensington. Author of " Crustacea," in a Treatise on Zoology, edited by Sir E. Ray Lankester. W. W. WILLIAM WALLACE. See the biographical article: WALLACE, WILLIAM (1844-1897). W. W. R.* WILLIAM WALKER ROCKWELL, Lie. THEOL. Assistant Professor of Church History, Union Theological Seminary, New York. Author of Die Doppelehe des Landgrafen Philipp von Hessen. Scott, Sir Walter (in part). f Sebastiano del Piombo; I Shelley. St Lawrence: River. ( Salt: Ancient History and \ Religious Symbolism. Shrimp. Schopenhauer (in part). Saragossa, Councils of. PRINCIPAL UNSIGNED ARTICLES St Vitus's Dance. Sal Ammoniac. Salicylic Acid. Salisbury. Salt Lake City. Saltpetre. Salt. Salvador. Salvation Army. Salzburg. Samoa. Samoyedes. Sanctuary. San Francisco. Santo Domingo. Sarsaparilla. Saskatchewan. Savannah. Saxe-Coburg-Gotha. Saxe-Meiningen. Saxe- Weimar-Eisenach. Saxony. Scarlet Fever. Schleswig-Holstein. Scilly Isles. Scipio. Scrophulariaceae. Scurvy. Seal-Fisheries. Seattle. Sea-Urchin. Sedition. Seismometer. Selenium. Selkirkshire. Senna. Sennar. Sequoia. Serjeant. Servo-Bulgarian War. Settlement. Severn. Sewing Machines. Sextant. Seychelles. Shadow. Shakers. Shamash. Sheffield. Shell-heaps. Shell-money. Sheridan. Shetland. Shoe. Shorthand (modern). Shropshire. ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA ELEVENTH EDITION VOLUME XXIV SAINTE-CLAIRE DEVILLE, ETIENNE HENRI (1818-1881), | French chemist, was born on the nth of March 1818 in the island of St Thomas, West Indies, where his father was French consul. Together with his elder brother Charles he was educated in Paris at the College Rollin. In 1844, having graduated as doctor of medicine and doctor of science, he was appointed to organize the new faculty of science at Besancon, where he acted as dean and professor of chemistry from 1845 to 1851. Return- ing to Paris in the latter year he succeeded A. J. Balard at the Ecole Normale, and in 1859 became professor at the Sorbonne in place of J. B. A. Dumas, for whom he had begun tc lecture in 1853. He died at Boulogne-sur-Seine on the ist of July 1881. He began his experimental work in 1841 with investigations of oil of turpentine and tolu balsam, in the course of which he discovered toluene. But his most important work was in inorganic and thermal chemistry. In 1849 he discovered anhydrous nitric acid (nitrogen pentoxide), a substance interesting as the first obtained of the so-called " anhydrides " of the monobasic acids. In 1855, ignorant of what Wohler had done ten years previously, he succeeded in obtaining metallic aluminium, and ultimately he devised a method by which the metal could be prepared on a large scale by the aid of sodium, the manufacture of which he also developed. With H. J. Debray (1827-1888) he worked at the platinum metals, his object being on the one hand to prepare them pure, and on the other to find a suitable metal for the standard metre for the Inter- national Metric Commission then sitting at Paris. With L. J. Troost (b. 1825) he devised a method for determining vapour densities at temperatures up to 1400° C., and, partly with F. Wohler, he investigated the allotropic forms of silicon and boron. The artificial preparation of minerals, especially of apatite and isomor- phous minerals and of crystalline oxides, was another subject in which he made many experiments. But his best known contribution to general chemistry is his work on the phenomena of reversible reactions, which he comprehended under a general theory of " dis- sociation." He first took up the subject about 1857, and it was in the course of his investigations on it that he devised the apparatus known as the " Deville hot and cold tube." His brother, CHARLES JOSEPH SAINTE- CLAIRE DEVILLE (1814-1876), geologist and meteorologist, was born in St Thomas on the 26th of February 1814. Having attended at the ficole des Mines in Paris, he assisted Elie de Beaumont in the chair of geology at the College de France from 1855 until he succeeded him in 1874. He made researches on volcanic phenomena, t especially on the gaseous emanations. He investigated also the variations of temperature in the atmosphere and ocean.' He died at Paris on the loth of October 1876. His published works include: fctudes geologiques sur les ties de Teneri/e et de Fogo (1848); Voyage geologique aux Antilles el aux ties de Tenerife et de Fogo (1848-1859); Recherches sur les princi- paux phenomenes de meteorologie et de physique generate aux Antilles (1849); Sur les variations periodiques de la temperature (1866), and Coup d'ceil historique sur la geologie (1878). xxrv. i ST ELMO'S FIRE, the glow accompanying the slow discharge of electricity to earth from the atmosphere. This discharge, which is identical with the " brush " discharge of laboratory experiments, usually appears as a tip of light on the extremities of pointed objects such as church towers, the masts of ships, or even the fingers of the outstretched hand: it is commonly accompanied by a crackling or fizzing noise. St Elmo's fire is most frequently observed at low levels through the winter season during and after snowstorms. The name St Elmo is an Italian corruption through Sant' Ermo of St Erasmus, a bishop, during the reign of Domitian, of Formiae, Italy, who was broken on the wheel about the 2nd of June 304. He has ever been the patron saint of Mediterranean sailors, who regard St Elmo's fire as the visible sign of his guar- dianship. The phenomenon was known to the ancient Greeks, and Pliny in his Natural History states that when there were two lights sailors called them Castor and Pollux and invoked them as gods. To English sailors St Elmo's fires were known as " corposants " (Ital. corpo santo). See Hazlitt's edition of Brand's Antiquities (1005) under " Castor and Pollux." . ST EMILION, a town of south-western France, in the depart- ment of Gironde, 25 m. from the right bank of the Dordogne and 27 m. E.N.E. of Bordeaux by rail. Pop. (1906), town, 1091; commune, 3546. The town derives its name from a hermit who lived here in the 7th and 8th centuries. Pictur- esquely situated on the slope of a hill, the town has remains of ramparts of the I2th and i3th centuries, with ditches hewn in the rock, and several medieval buildings. Of these the chief is the parish, once collegiate, church of the I2th and i3th centuries. A Gothic cloister adjoins the church. A fine belfry (i2th, i3th and isth centuries) commanding the town is built on the terrace, beneath which are hollowed in the rock the ora- tory and hermitage of St Emilion, and adjoining them an ancient monolithic church of considerable dimensions. Remains of a monastery of the Cordeliers (isth and i7th centuries), of a building (isth century)known as the Palais Cardinal, and a square keep (the chief relic of a stronghold founded by Louis VIII.) are also to be seen. Disused stone quarries in the side of the hill are used as dwellings by the inhabitants. St Emilion is celebrated for its wines. Its medieval importance, due to the pilgrimages to the tomb of the saint and to the commerce in its wines, began to decline towards the end of the I3th century owing to the foundation of Libourne. In 1272 it was the first of the towns of Guyenne to join the confederation headed by Bordeaux. SAINTE-PALAYE— ST ETIENNE SAINTE-PALAYE, JEAN BAPTISTE LA.CURNE (or LACXJRNE) DE (1697-1781), French scholar, was born at Auxerre on the 6th of June 1697. His father, Edme, had been gentleman of the bed-chamber to the duke of Orleans, brother of Louis XIV. Sainte-Palaye had a twin brother to whom he was greatly attached, refusing to marry so as not to be separated from him. For some time he ' held the same position under the regent Orleans as his father had under the duke of Orleans. He had received a thorough education in Latin and Greek, and had a taste for history. In 1724 he had been elected an associate of the Academic des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres, merely from his reputation, as nothing had been written by him before that date. From this time he devoted himself exclusively to the work of this society. After having published numerous memoirs on Roman history, he began a series of studies on the chroniclers of the middle ages for the Historiens des Gaules et de la France (edited by Dom Bouquet): Raoul Glaber, Helgaud, the Gesta of Louis VII., the chronicle of Morigny, Rigord and his con- tinuator, William le Breton, the monk of St Denis, Jean de Venette, Froissart and the Jouvencel. He made two journeys into Italy with his brother, the first in 1739-1740, accompanied by his compatriot, the president Charles de Brosses, who related many humorous anecdotes about the two brothers, particularly about Jean Baptiste, whom he called " the bilious Sainte- Palaye!" On returning from this tour he saw one of Join- ville's manuscripts at the house of the senator Fiorentini, well known in the history of the text of this pleasing memorialist. The manuscript was bought for the king in 1741 and is still at the Bibliotheque nationale. After the second journey (1749) Lacurne published a letter to de Brosses, on Le Go&t dans les arts (1751). In this he showed that he was not only attracted by manuscripts, but that he could see and admire works of art. In 1 759 he published the first edition of his Memoires sur I'ancienne chevalerie, consideree comme un etablissement politique et mililaire, for which unfortunately he only used works of fiction and ancient stories as sources, neglecting the heroic poems which would have shown him the nobler aspects of this institution so soon corrupted by " courteous " manners; a second edition appeared at the time of his death (3 vols. 1781, 3rd ed. 1826). He prepared an edition of the works of Eustache Deschamps, which was never published, and also made a collection of more than a hundred volumes of extracts from ancient authors relating to French antiquities and the French language of the middle ages. His Glossaire de la languefranc.aise was ready in 1 7 56, and a prospectus had been published, but the great length of the work prevented him finding a publisher. It remained in manuscript for more than a century. In 1 764 a collection of his manuscripts was bought by the government and after his death were placed in the king's library; they are still there (fonds Moreau), with the exception of some which were given to the marquess of Paulmy in exchange, and were later placed in the Arsenal. Lacurne de Sainte-Palaye ceased work about 1771; the death of his brother was greatly felt by him, he became childish, and died on the ist of March 1781. Sainte-Palaye had been a member of the Academic Francaise since 1758. His life was written for this Acadimie by Chamfort and for the Academic des Inscriptions by Dupuy; both works are of no value. See, however, the biography of Lacurne, with a list of his published works and those in manuscript, at the beginning ^of the tenth and last volume of the Dictionnaire histonque de I'ancien langage franc.ois, ou tlossaire de la langue franfoise depuis son origine jusquau siecle de Louis XIV., published by Louis Favre (1875- 1882). SAINTES, a town of western France, capital of an arrondisse- ment in the department of Charente-Infeiieure, 47 m. S.E. of La Rochelle by the railway from Nantes to Bordeaux. Pop. (1906), town, 13,744; commune, 19,025. Saintes is pleasantly situated on the left bank of the Charente, which separates it from its suburb of Les Dames. It is of interest for its Roman remains, of which the best preserved is the triumphal arch of Germanicus, dating from the reign of Tiberius. This formerly stood on a Roman bridge destroyed in 1843, when it was removed and reconstructed on the right bank of the river. Ruins of baths and of an amphitheatre are also to be seen. The amphitheatre, larger than that of Nlmes, and in area surpassed only by the Coliseum, dates probably from the close of the ist or the beginning of the 2nd century and was capable of holding 20,000 spectators. A Roman building known as the Capitol was destroyed after the capture of the town from the English by Charles of Alenfon, brother of Philip of Valois, in 1330, and its site is occupied by a hospital. Saintes was a bishop's see till 1790; the cathedral of St Peter, built in the first half of the i2th century, was rebuilt in the isth century, and again after it had been almost destroyed by the Huguenots in 1 568. The interior has now an unattractive appearance. The tower (isth century) is 236 ft. high. The church of St Eutropius (founded at the close of the 6th century, rebuilt in the nth, and had its nave destroyed in the Wars of Religion) stands above a very interesting well-lighted crypt — the largest in France after that of Chartres — adorned with richly sculptured capitals and containing the tomb of St Eutropius (4th or 5th century). The fine stone spire dates from the 1 5th century. Notre-Dame, a splendid example of the architecture of the nth and i2th centuries, with a noble clock- tower, is no longer devoted to religious purposes. The old h&tel de ville (i6th and i8th centuries) contains a library, and the present h6tel de ville a museum. Bernard Palissy, the porcelain- maker, has a statue in the town, where he lived from 1542 to 1562. Small vessels ascend the river as far as Saintes, which carries on trade in grain, brandy and wine, has iron foundries, works of the state railway, and manufactures earthenware, tiles, &c. Saintes (Mediolanum or Mediolanium) , the capital of the Santones, was a flourishing; town before Caesar's conquest of Gaul ; in the middle ages it was capital of the Saintonge. Christianity was introduced by St Eutropius, its first bishop, in the middle of the 3rd century. Charlemagne rebuilt its cathedral. The Normans burned the town in 845 and 854. Richard Coeur de Lion fortified himself within its walls against his father Henry II., who captured it after a destructive siege. In 124^2 St Louis defeated the English under its walls and was received into the town. It was not, however, till the reign of Charles V. that Saintes was permanentjy recovered from the English. The Protestants did great damage during the Wars of Religion. ST 6TIENNE, an industrial town of east-central France, capital of the department of Loire, 310 m. S.S.E. of Paris and 36 m. S.S.W. of Lyons by rail. Pop. (1906), town, 130,940; commune, 146,788. St Etienne is situated on the Furens, which flows through it from S.E. to N.W., partly underground, and is an important adjunct to the silk manufacture. The town is uni- formly built, its principal feature being the straight thoroughfare nearly 4 m. long which traverses it from N. to S. The chief of the squares is the Place Marengo, which has a statue of F. Gamier, the explorer, and is overlooked by the town hall and the prefecture, both modern. The church of St Etienne dates from the isth century, and the Romanesque church of the abbey of Valbenoite is on the S.E. outskirts of the town. A valuable collec- tion of arms and armour, a picture gallery, industrial collections, and a library with numerous manuscripts are in the Palais des Arts. St Etienne is the seat of a prefect, and has an important school of mining, and schools of music, chemistry and dyeing, &c. The town owes its importance chiefly to the coal-basin which extends between Firminy and Rive-de-Gier over an area 20 m. long by S m. wide, and is second only to those of Nord and Pas-de-Calais in France. There are concessions giving employment to some 18,000 workmen and producing annually between 3,000,000 and 4,000,000 tons. The mineral is of two kinds — smelting coal, said to be the best in France, and gas coal. There are manufactures of ribbons, trimmings and other goods made from silk and mixtures of cotton and silk. This industry dates from the early I7th century, is carried on chiefly in small factories (electricity supplying the motive power), and employs at its maximum some 50,000 hands. The attendant industry of dyeing is carried on on a large scale. The manufacture of steel arid iron and of heavy iron goods such as armour-plating occupies about 3000 workmen, and about half that number are employed in the production of ironmongery generally. Weaving machinery, cycles, automobiles and agricultural imple- ments are also made. The manufacture of fire-arms, carried on at the national factory under the direction of artillery officers, employs at busy times more than 10,000 men, and can turn out 480,000 rifles in the year. Private firms, employing 4500 hands, make both military rifles and sporting-guns, revolvers, &c. To these industries must be added the manufacture of elastic fabrics, glass, cartridges, liqueurs, hemp-cables, &c. ST EUSTATIUS— ST GALL At the close of the I2th century St Etienne was a parish of the Pays de Gier belonging to the abbey of Valbenoite. By the middle of the i4th century the coal trade had reached a certain development, and at the beginning of the isth century Charles VII. permitted the town to erect fortifications. The manufacture of fire-arms for the state was begun at St Etienne under Francis I. and was put under the surveillance of state inspectors early in the i8th century. In 1789 the town was producing at the rate of 12,000 muskets per annum; between September 1794 and May 1796 they delivered over 170,000; and 100,000 was the annual average throughout the period of the empire. The first railways opened in France were the line between St Etienne and Andrezieux on the Loire in 1828 and that between St Etienne and Lyons in 1831. In 1856 St Etienne became the administrative centre of the department instead of Montbrison. ST EUSTATIUS and SABA, two islands in the Dutch West Indies. St Eustatius lies 12 m. N.W. of St Kitts in 17° 50' N. and 62° 40' W. It is 8 sq. m. in area and is composed of several volcanic hills and intervening valleys. It contains Orangetown, situated on an open roadstead on the W., with a small export trade in yams and sweet potatoes. Pop. (1908) 1283. A few miles to the N.W. is the island of SABA, 5 sq. m. in extent. It consists of a single volcanic cone rising abruptly from the sea to the height of nearly 2800 ft. The town, Bottom, standing on the floor of an old crater, can only be approached from the shore 800 ft. below, by a series of steps cut in the solid rock and known as the " Ladder." The best boats in the Caribbees are built here; the wood is imported and the vessels, when complete, are lowered over the face of the cliffs. Pop. (1908) 2294. The islands form part of the colony of Curacao (d P. A. Paoli's Dell' origine ed istituto del sacro militar ordine, Sfc. (Rome, 1781). These are still useful sources as containing references to, and extracts from, documents since lost. In 1883 J. Delaville Le Roulx published Les Archives del' Ordrede Saint-Jean, an analysis of the records preserved at Malta. This was followed in 1904 by his monumental Cartulaire general des Hospitaliers de Saint-Jean de Jerusalem (l 100-1310), 4 vols. folio. This gives (i) all documents anterior to 1120, (2) all those emanating from the great dignitaries of the order, (3) all those emanating from popes, em- perors, kings and great feudatories, (4) those which fix the date of the foundation of particular commanderies, (5) those regulating the relations of the Hospitallers with the lay and ecclesiastical authorities and with the other military orders, (6) the rules, statutes and customs of the order. Hitherto unpublished documents (from the archives of Malta and elsewhere) are published in full ; those already published, and the place where they may be found, being indicated in proper sequence. Based on the Cartulaire is Le Roulx's Les 1 See Bedford and Holbeche, Appendix D. 4 The medieval vows are, of course, not taken. ST JOHNS— SAINT JOSEPH Hospitallers en Terre Sainte et en Chypre (Paris, 1904), an invaluable work in which many hitherto obscure problems have been solved. It contains a full list of published authorities. Of English works may be mentioned John Taaffe's History of the Order of Malta (1852); J. M. Kemble's Historical introduction to The Knights Hospitallers in England (Camden Soc., London, 1857); W. Porter, Hist, of the Knights of Malta (2 vols. 1858, new ed. 1883); Bedford and Holbeche, The Order of the Hospital of St John of Jerusalem (1902), for the modern order. (W. A. P.) ST JOHNS, the capital of Newfoundland, situated on the east coast of the island, in the peninsula of Avalon, in 47° 33' 54" N., and 52° 40' 1 8" W. It is the most easterly city of America, only 170x3 m. from Queenstown in Ireland, and 2030 from Liverpool. It stands on rising ground on the north side of a land-locked harbour, which opens suddenly in the lofty iron-bound coast. The entrance, known as The Narrows, guarded by Signal Hill (520 ft.) and South Side Hill (620 ft.), is about 1400 ft. wide, narrowing to 600 ft. between Pancake and Chain Rocks. At the termination of the Narrows the harbour trends suddenly to the west, thus completely shutting out the ocean swell. Vessels of the largest tonnage can enter at all periods of the tide. There is good wharf accommodation and a well-equipped dry dock. St Johns practically monopolizes the commerce of the island (see NEWFOUNDLAND), being the centre of the cod, seal and whale fisheries. The chief industries are connected with the fitting out of the fishing vessels, or with the disposal and manufacture of their catch. Steamship lines run to Liverpool, New York, Halifax (N.S.) and Saint Pierre. Nearly all the commerce of the island is sea-borne, and well-equipped steamers connect St Johns with the numerous bays and outports. It is the eastern terminus of the government railway across the island to Port-aux-Basques, whence there is steamer connexion with the mainland at Sydney. The finest buildings in the city are the Anglican and Roman Catholic cathedrals. Education is controlled by the various religious bodies; many of the young men complete their studies in Canada or Great Britain. St Johns is not an incorporated town. A municipal council was abolished after having largely increased the debt of the city, and it is now governed by com- missioners appointed by the governor in council. St Johns was first settled by Devonshire fishermen early in the i6th century. It was twice sacked by the French, and captured by them in the Seven Years' War (1762), but recaptured in the same year, since when it has remained in British possession. Both in the War of American Independence and in that of 1812 it was the headquarters of the British fleet, and at one time the western end of the harbour was filled up with American prizes. The old city, built entirely of wood, was twice destroyed by fire (1816-1817 and 1846). Half of it was again swept away in 1892, but new and more substantial buildings have been erected. The population, chiefly of the Roman Catholic faith and of Irish descent, increases slowly. In 1901 the electoral district of St Johns contained 39,094 inhabitants, of whom 30,486 were within the limits of the city. ST JOHNS, a town and port of entry of Quebec, Canada, and capital of St Johns county, 27 m. S.E. of Montreal by rail, on the river Richelieu and at the head of the Chambly canal. Pop. (1901) 4030. A large export trade in lumber, grain and farm produce is carried on, and its mills and factories produce flour, silk, pottery, hats, &c. Three railways, the Grand Trunk, Canadian Pacific and Central Vermont, enter St Johns. On the opposite bank of the river is the flourishing town of St Jean d'Iberville (usually known simply as Iberville), connected with St Johns by several bridges. SAINT JOHNSBURY, a township and the county-seat of Caledonia county, Vermont, U.S.A., on the Passumpsic river, about 34 m. E.N.E. of Montpelier. Pop. (1890) 6567; (1900) 7010; (1910) 8098; of the village of the same name (1900) 5666 (1309 foreign-born); (1910) 6693. Area of the township, about 47 sq. m. Saint Johnsbury is served by the Boston & Maine and the Saint Johnsbury & Lake Champlain railways. The farms of the township are devoted largely to dairying. In the village are a Y.M.C.A. building (1885); the Saint Johnsbury Academy (1842); the Saint Johnsbury Athenaeum (1871), with a library (about 18,000 volumes in 1909) and an art gallery; the Fairbanks Museum of Natural Science (1891), founded by Colonel Franklin Fairbanks; St Johnsbury Hospital (1895); Brightlook Hospital (1899, private); the large scales manu- factory of the E. & T. Fairbanks Company (see FAIRBANKS, ERASTUS), and also manufactories of agricultural implements, steam hammers, granite work, furniture and carriages. There are two systems of water-works, one being owned by the village. The township of Saint Johnsbury was granted to Dr Jonathan Arnold (1741—1793) and associates in 1786; in the same year a settlement was established and the place was named in honour of Jean Hector Saint John de Cr^vecoeur (1731-1813), who wrote Letters of an American Farmer (1782), a glowing description of America, which brought thither many immigrants, and who intro- duced potato planting into France. The township government was organized in 1790, and the village was incorporated in 1853. ST JOHN'S WORT, in botany, the general name for species of Hypericum, especially H . perforatum, small shrubby plants with slender sterns, sessile opposite leaves which are often dotted with pellucid glands, and showy yellow flowers. H. Androsaenium is Tutsan (Fr. tout saine), so called from its healing properties. H. calycinum (Rose of Sharon), a creeping plant with large almost solitary flowers 3 to 4 in. across, is a south-east European plant which has become naturalized in Britain in various places in hedges and thickets. SAINT JOSEPH, a city and the county-seat of Berrien county, Michigan, U.S.A., on Lake Michigan at the mouth of the Saint Joseph river, near the S.W. corner of the state. Pop. (1890) 3733J (1900) 5155, of whom 1183 were foreign-born; (1910 U.S. census) 5936. It is served by the Michigan Central and the Pere Marquette railways, by electric interurban railway to South Bend, Indiana, and by a steamboat line to Chicago. Benton Harbor, about i m. S.W., with which St Joseph is connected by electric line, is a terminus of the Cleveland, Cincinnati, Chicago & St Louis railway. The U.S. government has deepened the harbour channel to 18 ft.; and the St Joseph river has been made navigable for vessels drawing 3 ft. from St Joseph to Berrien Springs (25 m. by river). A canal, i m. long, extends from the upper part of the harbour to Benton Harbor. St Joseph has a public library. The city is a summer and health resort; it has mineral (saline sulphur) springs and a large mineral-water bath house. The general offices and the hospital (1902) of the Michigan Children's Home Society are here. The city has an important trade in fruit, and has various manu- factures, including paper, fruit packages, baskets, motor boats, gasolene launches, automobile supplies, hosiery and knit goods, air guns and sashes and blinds. The municipality owns and operates its water-works and electric-lighting plant. On or near the site of the present city La Salle built in 1679 Fort Miami. In the same county, on or near the site of the present city of Niles (pop. 1910, 5156), French Jesuits established an Indian mission in 1690, and the French government in 1697 erected Fort St Joseph, which was captured from the English by the Indians in 1763, and in 1781 was seized by a Spanish party from St Louis. Fort Miami has often been confused with this Fort St Joseph, 60 m. farther up the river. St Joseph was settled in 1829, incorporated as a village in 1836 and first chartered as a city in 1891. SAINT JOSEPH, a city and the county-seat of Buchanan county, Missouri, U.S.A., and a port of entry, situated in the north-western corner of the state on the E. bank of the Missouri river. It is the third in size among the cities of the state. Pop. (1880) 32,431; (1890) 52,324; (1900) 102,979, of whom 8424 were foreign-born and 6260 were negroes; (1910 census) 77,403. St Joseph is a transportation centre of great import- ance. It is served by six railways, the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe, the Chicago, Burlington & Quincy, the Chicago Great Western, the Chicago, Rock Island & Pacific, the Missouri Pacific, and the St Joseph & Grand Island; in addition there are two terminal railways. A steel bridge across the Missouri (built in 1872; rebuilt in 1906) connects the city with Elwood, Kansas (pop. 1910, 636), and is used by two railways. The city is laid out on hills above the bluffs of the river. The site was completely remade, however (especially in 1866-1873), and the entire business portion has been much graded down. The principal public buildings are the Federal building, the court house, an auditorium seating 7000, a Union Station and a 20 ST JUNIEN— SAINT-JUST public library. There are six city parks, of which the largest are Krug Park (30 acres) and Bartlett Park (20 acres). The State Hospital (No. 2) for the Insane(opened 1874) is immediately E. of St Joseph; in the city are the Ensworth, St Joseph and Woodson hospitals, a Memorial Home for needy old people and the Home for Little Wanderers. South St Joseph, a manu- facturing suburb, has a library and so has the northern part of the city. The great stock-yards of South St Joseph are sights of great interest. In 1909 the state legislature provided for a commission form of government which took effect in April 1910; a council of five, elected by the city at large, has only legislative powers; the mayor appoints members of a utilities commission, a park commission and a board of public works, and all officers except the city auditor and treasurer; and the charter provides for the initiative, the referendum and the recall. The city maintains a workhouse (1882), also two market houses, and owns and manages an electric-lighting plant. Natural gas is also furnished to the city from oil-fields in Kansas. A private company owns the water-works, first built in 1879 and since greatly improved. The water is drawn from the Missouri, 3 m. above the city, and is pumped thence into reservoirs and settling basins. Beside the local trade of a rich surrounding farming country, the railway facilities of St Joseph have enabled it to build up a great jobbing trade (especially in dry goods), and this is still the greatest economic interest of the city. Commerce and transport were the only distinctive basis of the city's growth and wealth until after 1890, when there was a great increase in manufacturing, especially, in South St Joseph, of the slaughtering and meat-packing industry in the last three years of the decade. In 1900 the manufactured product of the city and its immediate suburbs was valued at $31,690,736, of which $19,009,332 were credited to slaughtering and packing. In the decade of 1890-1900 the increase in the value of manu- factures (165-9%) was almost five times as great in St Joseph as in any other of the largest four cities of the state, and this was due almost entirely to the growth of the slaughtering and meat-packing business, which is for the most part located outside the municipal limits. In 1905 the census reports did not include manufactures outside the actual city limits; the total value of the factory product of the city proper in 1905 was $11,573,720; besides slaughtering and packing the other manufactures in 1905 included men's factory-made clothing (valued at $1,556,655) flour and grist-mill products (valued at $683 ,464) ,saddlery and har- ness (valued at $524,918), confectionery ($437,096), malt liquors ($407,054), boots and shoes ($350,384) and farm implements. In 1826 Joseph Robidoux, a French half-breed trader, established a trading post on the site of St Joseph. Following the purchase from the Indians of the country, now known as the Platte Purchase, in 1836, a settlement grew up about this trading post, and in 1843 Robidoux laid out a town here and named it St Joseph in honour of his patron saint. St Joseph became the county-seat in 1846, and in 1851 was first chartered as a city. It early became a trading centre of importance, well known as an outfitting point for miners and other emigrants to the Rocky Mountain region and the Pacific coast. During the Civil War it was held continuously by the Unionists, but local sentiment was bitterly divided. After the war a rapid development began. In 1885 St Joseph became a city of the second class. Under the state constitution of 1875 it has had the right, since attaining a population of 100,000, to form a charter for itself. In September 1909, at a special election, it adopted the commission charter described above. ST JUNIEN, a town of west-central France in the department of Haute- Vienne, on the right bank of the Vienne, 26 m. W. by N. of Limoges on the railway from Limoges to Angouleme. Pop. (1006) town, 8484; commune, 11,400. The I2th century collegiate church, a fine example of the Romanesque style of Limousin, contains a richly sculptured tomb of St Junien, the hermit of the 6th century from whom the town takes its name. Another interesting building is the Gothic chapel of Notre-Dame, with three naves, rebuilt by Louis XI., standing close to a medieval bridge over the Vienne. The town, which ranks second in the department in population and industry, is noted for leather-dressing and the manufacture of gloves and straw paper. SAINT-JUST, ANTOINE LOUIS LEON DE RICHEBOURG DE (1767-1794), French revolutionary leader, was born at Decize in the Nivernais on the 25th of August 1767. At the outbreak of the Revolution, intoxicated with republican ideas, he threw himself with enthusiasm into politics, was elected an officer in the National Guard of the Aisne, and by fraud — he being yet under age — admitted as a member of the electoral assembly of his district. Early in 1789 he had published twenty cantos of licentious verse, in the fashion of the time, under the title of Organt au Vatican. Henceforward, however, he assumed a stoical demeanour, which, united to a policy tyrannical and pitilessly thorough, became the characteristic of his life. He entered into correspondence with Robespierre, who, flattered by his worship, admitted him to his friendship. Thus supported, Saint- Just became deputy of the department of Aisne to the National Convention, where he made his first speech on the condemnation of Louis XVI. — gloomy, fanatical, remorseless in tone — on the I3th of November 1792. In the Convention, in the Jacobin Club, and among the populace his relations with Robespierre became known, and he was dubbed the " St John of the Messiah of the People." His appointment as a member of the Committee of Public Safety placed him at the centre of the political fever-heat. In the name of this committee he was charged with the drawing up of reports to the Convention upon the absorbing themes of the overthrow of the party of the Gironde (report of the 8th of July 1793), of the Herbertists, and finally, of that denunciation of Danton which consigned him and his followers to the guillotine. What were then called reports were rather appeals to the passions; in Saint-Just's hands they furnished the occasion for a display of fanatical daring, of gloomy eloquence, and of undoubted genius; and — with the shadow of Robespierre behind him — they served their turn. Camille Desmoulins, in jest and mockery, said of Saint-Just — the youth with the beautiful 'countenance and the long fair locks — " He carries his head like a Holy Sacrament." " And I," savagely replied Saint- Just, " will make him carry his like a Saint Denis." The threat was not vain: Desmoulins accom- panied Danton to the scaffold. The same ferocious inflexibility animated Saint-Just with reference to the external policy of France. He proposed that the National Convention should itself, through its committees, direct all military movements and all branches of the government (report of the loth of October 1793). This was agreed to, and Saint-Just was despatched to Strassburg, in company with another deputy, to superintend the military operations. It was suspected that the enemy without was being aided by treason within. Saint-Just's remedy was direct and terrible: he followed his experience in Paris, " organized the Terror," and soon the heads of all suspects sent to Paris were falling under the guillotine. But there were no executions at Strassburg, and Saint-Just repressed the excesses of J. G. Schneider (q.v.), who as public prosecutor to the revolu- tionary tribunal of the Lower Rhine had ruthlessly applied the Terror in Alsace. Schneider was sent to Paris and guillotined. The conspiracy was defeated, and the armies of the Rhine and Moselle having been inspirited by success — Saint-Just himself taking a fearless part in the actual fighting — and having effected a junction, the frontier was delivered and Germany invaded. On his return Saint-Just was made president of the Convention. Later, with the army of the North, he placed before the generals the dilemma of victory over the enemies of France or trial by the dreaded revolutionary tribunal; and before the eyes of the army itself he organized a force specially charged with the slaughter of those who should seek refuge by flight. Success again crowned his efforts, and Belgium was gained for France (May, 1794). Meanwhile affairs in Paris looked gloomier than ever, and Robespierre recalled Saint-Just to the capital. Saint- Just proposed a dictatorship as the only remedy for the con- vulsions of society. At last, at the famous sitting of the gth Thermidor, he ventured to present as the report of the com- mittees of General Security and Public Safety a document expressing his own views, a sight of which, however, had been refused to the other members of committee on the previous evening. Then the storm broke. He was vehemently inter- rupted, and the sitting ended with an order for Robespierre's ST JUST— ST LAWRENCE 21 arrest (see ROBESPIERRE). On the following day, the 28th of July 1794, twenty-two men, nearly all young, were guillotined. Saint-Just maintained his proud self-possession to the last. See CEuvres de Saint- Just, precedees d'une notice historique sur so, vie (Paris, 1833-1834); E. Fleury, Etudes revolutionnaires (2 vols., 1851), with which cf. articles by Sainte Beuve (Causeries du lundi, vol. v.), Cuvillier-Fleury {Portraits politiques et revolutionnaires) ; E. Hamel, Histoire de Saint- Just (1859), which brought a fine to the publishers for outrage on public decency ; F. A. Aulard, Les Orateurs de la Legislative et de la Convention (2nd ed., Paris, 1905). The CEuvres completes de Saint-Just have been edited with notes by C. Vellay (Paris, 1908). ST JUST (St Just in Penwith), a market town in the St Ives parliamentary division of Cornwall, England, 75 m. by road W. of Penzance. Pop. of urban district (1901) 5646. This is the most westerly town in England, lying in a wild district i m. inland from Cape Cornwall, which is 4 m. N. of Land's End. The urban district has an area of 7633 acres, and includes the small industrial colonies near some of the most important mines in Cornwall. The Levant mine is the chief, the workings extend- ing beneath the sea. Traces of ancient workings and several exhausted mines are seen. The church of St Just is Per- pendicular, with portions of the fabric of earlier date. There are ruins of an oratory dedicated to St Helen on Cape Cornwall. ST KILDA, a city of Bourke county, Victoria, Australia, 35 m. by rail S. of, and suburban to, Melbourne. Pop. (1901) 20,544. It is a fashionable watering-place on Hobson's Bay, and possesses the longest pier in Australia. The esplanade and the public park are finely laid out; and portions of the sea are fenced in to protect bathers. The town hall, the public library, the assembly hall, and the great Anglican church of All Saints are the chief buildings. ST KILDA (Gaelic Hirta, " the western land "), the largest of a small group of about sixteen islets of the Outer Hebrides, Inverness-shire, Scotland. It is included in the civil parish of Harris, and is situated 40 m. W. of North Uist. It measures 3 m. from E. to W. and 2 m. from N. to S., has an area of about 3500 acres, and is 7 m. in circumference. Except at the landing- place on the south-east, the cliffs rise sheer out of dee-p water, and on the north-east side the highest eminence in the island, Conagher, forms a precipice 1220 ft. high. St Kilda is probably the core of a Tertiary volcano, but, besides volcanic rocks, contains hills of sandstone in which the stratification is distinct. The boldness of its scenery is softened by the richness of its verdure. The inhabitants, an industrious Gaelic-speaking community (no in 1851 and 77 in 1901), cultivate about 40 acres of land (potatoes, oats, barley), keep about 1000 sheep and a few head of cattle. They catch puffins, fulmar petrels, guillemots, razor- birds, Manx shearwaters and solan geese both for their oil and for food. Fishing is generally neglected. Coarse tweeds and blanketing are manufactured for home use from the sheep's wool which is plucked from the animal, not shorn. The houses are collected in a little village at the head of the East Bay. The island is practically inaccessible for eight months of the year, but the inhabitants communicate with the outer world by means of " sea messages," which are despatched in boxes when a strong west wind is blowing, and generally make the western islands or mainland of Scotland in a week. The island has been in the possession of the Macleods for hundreds of years. In 1779 the chief of that day sold it, but in 1871 Macleod ol Macleod bought it back, it is stated, for £3000. In 1724 the popu- lation was reduced by smallpox to thirty souls. They appear to catch what is called the " boat-cold " caused by the arrival of strange boats, and at one time the children suffered severely from a form of lockjaw known as the " eight days' sickness." See works by Donald Munro, high dean of the Isles (1585) M Martin (1698), Rev. K. Macaulay (1764), R. Connell (1887); Miss Goodnch-Freer, The Outer Isles; Richard and Cherry Kearton, With Nature and a Camera (1896). ST KITTS, or ST CHRISTOPHER, an island in the British West Indies, forming, with Nevis and Anguilla, one of the presidencies in the colony of the Leeward Islands. It is a long oval with a narrow neck of land projecting from the south-eastern end; total length 23 m., area 63 sq. m. Mountains traverse the central part from N.W. to S.E., the greatest height being Mount Misery (3771 ft.). The island is well watered, fertile and healthy, and its climate is cool and dry (temperature between 78° and 85° F.; average annual rainfall 38 in.). The circle of land formed by the skirts of the mountains, and the valley of Basseterre con- stitute nearly the whole of the cultivated portion. The higher slopes of the hills afford excellent pasturage, while the summits are crowned with dense woods. Sugar, molasses, rum, salt, coffee and tobacco are the chief products; horses and cattle are bred. Primary education is compulsory. The principal towns are Old Road, Sandy Point and the capital Basseterre, which lies on the S.W. coast (pop. about 10,000). One good main road, macadamized throughout, encircles the island. The local legislature consists of 6 official and 6 unofficial members nomin- ated by the Crown. St Kitts was discovered by Columbus in 1493 and first settled by Sir Thomas Warner in 1623. Five years later it was divided between the British and* the French, but at the Peace of Utrecht in 1713 it was entirely ceded to the British Crown. Population, mostly negroes, 29,782. SAINT-LAMBERT, JEAN FRANCOIS DE (1716-1803), French poet, was born at Nancy on the 26th of December 1716. He entered the army and, when Stanislaus Leszczynski was estab- lished in 1737 as duke of Lorraine, he became an official at his court at Luneville. He left the army after the Hanoverian campaign of 1756-57, and devoted himself to literature, producing a volume of descriptive verse, Les Saisons (1769), now never read, many articles for the Encyclopedic, and some miscellaneous works. He was admitted to the Academy in 1770. His fame, however, comes chiefly from his amours. He was already high in the favour of the marquise de Boufflers, Stanislaus's mistress, whom he addressed in his verses as Doris and Thimire, when Voltaire in 1748 came to Luneville with the marquise de Chatelet. Her infatuation for him and its fatal termination are known to all readers of the life of Voltaire. His subsequent liaison with Madame d'Houdetot, Rousseau's Sophie, though hardly less disastrous to his rival, continued for the whole lives of himself and his mistress. Saint-Lambert's later years were given to philosophy. He published in 1798 the Principe des nuzurs chez toutes let nations ou catechisme universel, and published his CEuvres philosophiques (1803), two years before his death on the 9th of February 1803. Madame d'Houdetot survived until the 28th of January 1813. See G. Maugras, La Cour de Luneville (1904) and La Marquise de Boufflers (1907); also the literature dealing with Rousseau and Voltaire. ST LAWRENCE. The river St Lawrence, in North America, with the five fresh- water inland seas (see GREAT LAKES), Superior, Michigan, Huron, Erie and Ontario, forms one of the great river systems of the world, having a length, from the source of the river St Louis (which rises near the source of the river Mississippi and falls into the head of Lake Superior) to Cape Gaspe, where it empties into the Gulf of St Lawrence, of 2100 m. The river is here considered as rising at the foot of Lake Ontario, in 44° 10' N., 76° 30' W., where the name St Lawrence is first applied to it. The river, to the point where it crosses 45° N. in its north- westerly course, forms the boundary line between the state of New York and the province of Ontario; thence to the sea it is wholly within Canadian territory, running through the province of Quebec. At Point des Monts, 260 m. below Quebec, it is 26 m. wide, and where it finally merges into the Gulf of St Lawrence, 150 m. farther on, it is 90 m. wide, this stretch being broken by the large island of Anticosti, lying fairly in the mouth. The character of the river banks varies with the geological formations through which it runs. Passing over the Archaean rocks of the Laurentian from Kingston to Brockville the shores are very irregular, and the river is broken up by protrusions of glaciated summits of the granites and gneisses into a large number of picturesque islands, " The Thousand Islands," greatly frequented as a summer resort. From Brockville to Montreal the river runs through flat-bedded Cambro-silurian imestones, with rapids at several points, which are all run by light-draught passenger boats. For the up trip the rapids are avoided by canalization. From Montreal to Three Rivers the course is through an alluvial plain over-lying the limestones, 22 ST LAWRENCE the river at one point expanding into Lake St Peter, 20 m. long by 10 m. wide, with a practically uniform depth of 10 ft. Below Three Rivers the banks grow gradually higher until, after passing Quebec through a cleft in slate rocks of Cambrian age, the river widens, washing the feet of the Laurentian Mountains on its north shore; while a more moderately hilly country, terminating in the Shickshock Mountains of the Gaspe Peninsula, skirts its south shore. From Kingston, at the head of the river, to Montreal, a distance of 170 m., navigation is limited to vessels of 14 ft. draught by the capacity of the canals. From Montreal to Quebec, 160 m., a ship channel has been dredged to a depth of 30 ft.; below Quebec the river is tidally navigable by vessels of any draught. The canals on the St Lawrence above Montreal have been enlarged to the capacity of the Welland canal, the improved system having been opened to commerce in the autumn of 1899. Instead of enlarging the Beauharnois canal, on the south side of the river, a new canal, the " Soulanges," was built from Coteau Landing to Cascades Point, on the north side, the Beau- harnois canal still being used for small barges. The locks of the enlarged canals are all 45 ft. wide, with an available depth of 14 ft. and a minimum length of 270 ft. The following table shows the canalized stretches in this portion of the river: — Name. From To Length in Miles. Number of Locks. Fall in Feet. Galops Head of Galops Rapids Iroquois 7i 3 I5l River . 4 Rapide Plat Head of Ogden Island Morrisburg 3f 2 III River . . . ioi Farran Point Head of Croil Island Farran Point i I 3l River . 5 Cornwall Canal . Dickinson Landing Cornwall ii 6 48 Lake St Francis 3oi Soulanges . Coteau Landing Cascades Point 14 4 toi Lake St Louis . H Lachine Lachine Montreal 8J 5 45 109! 21 206 In the stretch between Montreal and Quebec the ship channel, begun by the Montreal Harbour Commissioners, has been assumed by the Dominion government as a national work, and improve- ments, involving extensive dredging, have been undertaken with the aim of securing everywhere a minimum depth of 30 ft. with a minimum width of 450 ft. The whole river from Kingston to the sea is well supplied with aids to navi- gation. In the dredged portions lights are arranged in pairs of leading lights on foundations sufficiently high and solid to resist the pressure of ice movement, and there is an elabo- rate system of fog alarms, gas-lighted and other buoys, as well as telegraphic, wireless and telephonic communication, storm signal, weather and ice reporting stations and a life-saving service. Montreal, at the head of ocean navigation, the largest city in Canada, is an important distributing centre for all points in western Canada, and enjoys an extensive shipping trade with the United Kingdom, the sea-going shipping exceeding 1,500,000 tons, and the inland shipping approximating 2,000,000 tons, annually. Quebec is the summer port used by the largest steamers in the Canadian trade. There are numerous flourishing towns on both banks of the river, from1 Kingston, a grain trans- ferring port, to the sea. Large quantities of lumber, principally spruce (fir) and paper pulp, are manufactured at small mills along the river, and shipped over sea directly from the place of production. The mail steamers land and embark mails at Rimouski, to or from which they are conveyed by rail along the south shore. The importance to Canada of the river St Lawrence as a national trade route cannot be over-estimated. As a natural highway between all points west of the Maritime Provinces and Europe it is unique in permitting ocean traffic to penetrate 1000 m. into the heart of a country. It is, moreover, the shortest freight route from the Great Lakes to Europe. From Buffalo to Liverpool via New York involves rail or 7-ft. canal transport of 496 m. and an ocean voyage of 3034 nautical miles. Via Montreal there is a i4-ft. transport of 348 m. and river and ocean voyage of 2772 nautical miles. From Quebec to Liverpool by Cape Race is 2801 nautical miles, while the route by Belle Isle, more nearly a great circle course, usually taken between July and October, is only 2633 nautical miles. On the other hand the St Lawrence is not open throughout the year; the average time between the arrival of the first vessel at Montreal from sea and the departure of the last ocean vessel is seven months. From Kingston to Quebec the river freezes over every winter, except at points where the current is rapid. Below Quebec, although there is heavy border ice, the river never freezes over. For a few winters, while the bridge accommodation at Montreal was restricted to the old single-track Victoria bridge, railway freight trains were run across the ice bridge on temporary winter tracks. Efforts have been made to lengthen the season of navigation by using specially constructed steamers to break the ice; and it is claimed that the season of navigation could be materially lengthened, and winter floods prevented by keeping the river open to Montreal. Winter ferries are maintained at Quebec, between Prince Edward Island and Nova Scotia, and between Newfoundland and Sydney, Cape Breton. In the winter of 1898-1899 an attempt was made to run a winter steamer from Paspebiac to England, but it was not successful, principally because an unsuitable vessel was used. To pass through the field of ice that is always present in the gulf, in greater or lesser quantity, specially strengthened vessels are required. The river above tide water is not subject to excessive flooding, the maxi- mum rise in the spring and early summer months, chiefly from northern tributaries from the Ottawa eastward, being 10 ft. The Great Lakes serve as impounding reservoirs for the gradual distribution of all overflows in the west. At Montreal, soon after the river freezes over each winter, there is a local rise of about IO ft. in the level of the water in the harbour, caused by restriction of the channel by anchor ice; and in the spring of the year, when the volume of the water is augmented, this obstruction leads to a further rise, in 1886 reaching a height of 27 ft. above ordinary low water. To Erevent flooding of the lower parts of the city a dike was in 1887 uilt along the river front, which prevented a serious flooding in 1899. Tides enter the Gulf of St Lawrence from the Atlantic chiefly through Cabot Strait (between Cape Breton and Newfoundland), which is 75 m. wide and 250 fathoms deep. The tide entering through Belle Isle Strait, 10 m. wide and 30 fathoms deep, is comparatively little felt. The tidal undulation, in passing through the gulf, expands so widely as to be almost inappreciable in places, as, for example, at the Magdalen Islands, in the middle of the gulf, where the range amounts to about 3 ft. at springs, becoming effaced at neaps. There is also little more tide than this at some points on the north shore of Prince Edward Island. The greatest range is attained in North- umberland Strait and in Chaleur Bay, where it amounts to 10 ft. At the entrance to the estuary at Anticosti it has again the oceanic range of about 6 ft., and proceeds up the estuary with an ever- increasing range, which attains its maximum of 19 ft. at the lower end of Orleans Island, 650 m. from the ocean at Cabot Strait. This must be considered the true head of the estuary. At Quebec, 30 m. farther up, the range is nearly as great ; but at 40 m. above Quebec it is largely cut off by the Richelieu Rapids, and finally ceases to be felt at Three Rivers, at the lower end of Lake St Peter, 760 m. from the ocean. The St Lawrence provides ample water-power, which is being increasingly used. Its rapids have long been used for milling and factory purposes; a wing dam on the north side of Lachine Rapids furnishes electricity to Montreal; the falls of Montmorency light Quebec and run electric street cars; and from Lake Superior to the gulf there are numerous points on the tributaries to the St Lawrence where power could be used. Nearly all the rivers flowing into the St Lawrence below Quebec are stocked with salmon (Salmo salar), and are preserved and leased to anglers by the provincial government. In the salt ST LEGER— ST LEONARDS water of the gulf and lower river, mackerel, cod, herring, smelt, sea-trout, striped bass and other fish are caught for market. The St Lawrence is spanned by the following railway bridges: (i) A truss bridge built near Cornwall in 1900 by the New York & Ottawa railroad, now operated by the New York Central railroad. (2) A truss bridge with a swing, built in 1890 by the Canada Atlantic railway at Coteau Landing. (3) A cantilever bridge built in 1887 by the Canadian Pacific railway at Caugh- nawaga. (4) The Victoria Jubilee bridge, built as a tubular bridge by the Grand Trunk railway in 1860, and transformed into a truss bridge in 1897-1898. The new bridge rests on the piers of the old one, enlarged to receive it, is 6592 ft. long by 67 ft. wide, has 25 spans, double railway and trolley tracks, driveways and sidewalks, and was erected without interruption of traffic. (5) A very large cantilever bridge, having a central span of 1800 ft., crosses the river at a point 7 m. above Quebec. The southern half of the superstructure, while in course of erection in August 1907, fell, killing 78 men, and necessitating a serious delay in the completion of the work. The river St Lawrence was discovered by Jacques Cartier, commissioned by the king of France to explore and trade on the American coast. Cartier entered the strait of Belle Isle in 1534; but Breton fishermen had previously resorted there in summer and penetrated as far as Brest, eleven leagues west of Blanc Sablon, the dividing line between Quebec and Labrador. Cartier circled the whole gulf, but missed the entrance to the river. On his second voyage in 1536 he named a bay on the north shore of the gulf, which he entered on the loth of August, the feast of St Lawrence, Baye Sainct Laurens, and the name gradually extended over the whole river, though Cartier himself always wrote of the River of Canada. Early in September, he reached " Canada," now Quebec, and on the 2nd of October reached Hochelaga, now Montreal. No permanent settlement was then made. The first, Tadousac, at the mouth of the Saguenay, was established by Champlain in 1603, and Quebec was settled by him in 1608. Between that time and 1616 Champlain explored the whole river system as far west as Lake Huron, reaching it by way of the Ottawa river, and taking possession of the country in the name of the king of France. It became British by the treaty of Paris, in 1763. See S. E. Dawson, The St Lawrence, its Basin and Border Lands (New York, 1905) (historical); St Lawrence Pilot (7th ed., Hydro- graphic Office, Admiralty, London, 1906) ; Sailing Directions for the St Lawrence River to Montreal (United States Hydrographic Office publication, No. 108 D, Washington, 1907): Annual Reports of the Canadian Departments of Marine and Fisheries, Public Works, and Railways and Canals, Ottawa); Transactions (Royal Society, Canada, 1898-1899), vol. iv. sec. iii.; T. C. Reefer on " Ice Floods and Winter Navigation of the St Lawrence," Transactions (Canadian Society of Civil Engineers, Presidential Address of W. P. Anderson, on improvements to navigation on St Lawrence, 1904). (W. P. A.) ST LEGER, SIR ANTHONY (c. 1496-1559), lord deputy of Ireland, eldest son of Ralph St Leger, a gentleman of Kent, was educated abroad and at Cambridge. He quickly gained the favour of Henry VIII., and was appointed in 1537 president of a commission for inquiring into the condition of Ireland. This work he carried out with ability and obtained much useful knowledge of the country. In 1540 he was appointed lord deputy of Ireland. His first task was to repress disorder, and he at once proceeded with severity against the Kavanaghs, per- mitting them, however, to retain their lands, on their accepting feudal tenure on the English model. By a similar policy he exacted obedience from the O'Mores, the O'Tooles and the O'Conors in Leix and Offaly; and having conciliated the O'Briens in the west and the earl of Desmond in the south, the lord deputy carried an act in the Irish parliament in Dublin conferring the title of king of Ireland on Henry VIII. and his heirs. Conn O'Neill, who in the north had remained sullenly hostile, was brought to submission by vigorous measures. For the most part, however, St Leger's policy was one of moderation and conciliation — rather more so, indeed, than Henry VIII. approved. He recommended The O'Brien, when he gave token of a sub- missive disposition, for the title of earl of Thomond; O'Neill was created earl of Tyrone; and administrative council was instituted in the province of Munster; and in 1544 a levy of Irish soldiers was raised for service in Henry VIII. 's wars. St Leger's personal influence was proved by an outbreak of disturbance when he visited England in 1544, and the prompt restoration of order on his return some months later. St Leger retained his office under Edward VI., and again effectually quelled attempts at rebellion by the O'Conors and O'Byrnes. From 1548 to 1550 he was in England. He returned charged with the duty of introducing the reformed liturgy into Ireland. His conciliatory methods brought upon him the accusation that he lacked zeal in the cause, and led to his recall in the summer of 1551. After the accession of Mary he was again appointed lord deputy in October 1553, but in consequence of a charge against him of keeping false accounts he was recalled for the third time in 1556. While the accusation was still under investi- gation, he died on the i6th of March 1559. By his wife Agnes, daughter of Hugh Warham, a niece cf Archbishop Warham, he had three sons, William, Warham and Anthony. William died in his father's lifetime leaving a son, Sir Warham St Leger (d. 1600), who was father of Sir William St Leger (d. 1642), president of Munster. Sir William took part in " the flight of the earls " (see O'NEILL) in 1607, and spent several years abroad. Having received a pardon from James I. and extensive grants of land in Ireland, he was appointed president of Munster by Charles I. in 1627. He warmly supported the arbitrary government of Strafford, actively assisting in raising and drilling the Irish levies destined for the service of the king against the Parliament. In the great rebellion of 1641 he bore the chief responsibility for dealing with the insurgents in Munster; but the forces and supplies placed at his disposal were utterly inadequate. He executed martial law in his province with the greatest severity, hanging large numbers of rebels, often without much proof of guilt. He was still struggling with the insurrection when he died at Cork on the 2nd of July 1642. Sir William's daughter Margaret married Murrough O'Brien, i.st earl of Inchi- quin; his son John was father of Arthur St Leger, created Viscount Doneraile in 1703. A biography of Sir Anthony St Leger will be found in Athenae Cantabrigienses, by C. H. Cooper and T. Cooper (Cambridge, 1858) ; see also Calendar of State Papers relating to Ireland, Hen. VIII.-Eliz. • Calendar of Letters and Papers of the Reign of Henry VIII. ; Calendar of State Papers (Domestic Series'), Edward VI. — James I.; Calendar of Carew MSS.; J. O'Donovan's edition of Annals of Ireland by the Four Masters (7 vols., Dublin, 1851); Richard Bagwell, Ireland under the Tudors (3 vols., London, 1885-1890) ; J. A. Froude, History of England (12 vols., London, 1856-1870). For Sir William St Leger, see Strafford' s Letters and Despatches (2 vols., London, 1 739) ; Thomas Carte, History of the Life of James, Duke of Ormonde (6 vols., Oxford, 1851); History of the Irish Confederation and the War in Ireland, edited by Sir J. T. Gilbert (Dublin, 1882-1891). (R. J. M.) ST LEONARDS, EDWARD BURTENSHAW SU6DEN, IST BARON (1781-1875), lord chancellor of Great Britain, was the son of a hairdresser of Duke Street, Westminster, and was born on the 1 2th of February 1781. After practising for some years as a conveyancer, he was called to the bar at Lincoln's Inn in 1807, having already published his well-known treatise on the Law of Vendors and Purchasers (i4th ed., 1862). In 1822 he was made king's counsel and chosen a bencher of Lincoln's Inn. He was returned at different times for various boroughs to the House of Commons, where he made himself prominent by his opposition to the Reform Bill of 1832. He was appointed solicitor-general in 1829, was named lord chancellor of Ireland in 1834, and again filled the same office from 1841 to 1846. Under Lord Derby's first administration in 1852 he became lord chancellor and was raised to the peerage as Lord St Leonards. In this position he devoted himself with energy and vigour to the reform of the law; Lord Derby on his return to power in 1858 again offered him the same office, which from considerations of health he declined. He continued, however, to take an active interest especially in the legal matters that came before the House of Lords, and bestowed his particular attention on the reform of the law of property. He died at Boyle Farm, Thames Ditton, on the 29th of January 1875- ST LIZIER-DE-COUSERANS— ST LOUIS After his death his will was missing, but his daughter, Miss Charlotte Sugden, was able to recollect the contents of a most intricate document, and in the action of Sugden v. Lord St Leonards (L.R. i P.D. 154) the court accepted her evidence and granted probate of a paper propounded as containing the provisions of the lost will. This decision established the pro- position that the contents of a lost will may be proved by secondary evidence, even of a single witness. Lord St Leonards was the author of various important legal publications, many of which have passed through several editions. Besides the treatise on purchasers already mentioned, they include Powers, Cases decided by the House of Lords, Gilbert on Uses, New Real Property Laws and Handybook of Property Law, Misrepresenta- tions in Campbell's Lives of Lyndhurst and Brougham, corrected by St Leonards. See The Times uoth of January 1875); E. Manson, Builders of our Law (1904); J. R. Atlay, Lives of the Victorian Chancellors, vol. ii. ST LIZIER-DE-COUSERANS, a village of south-western France in the department of Ariege on the right bank of the Salat, i m. N.N.W. of St Girons. Pop. (1906) 615; commune 1295. St Lizier, in ancient times one of the twelve cities of Novempopulania under the name of Lugdunum Consoranorum, was later capital of the Couserans and seat of a bishopric (sup- pressed at the Revolution) to the holders of which the town belonged. It has a cathedral of the i2th and i4th centuries with a fine Romanesque cloister and preserves remarkable remains of Roman ramparts. The old episcopal palace (i7th century) and the adjoining church (i4th and iyth centuries), once the cathedral with its fine chapter-hall (i2th century), form part of a lunatic asylum. The Salat is crossed by a bridge of the 1 2th or I3th century. The town owes its name to its bishop Lycerius, who is said to have saved it from the Vandals in the 7th century. The chief event in its history was its devastation in 1130 by Bernard III., count of Comminges, a disaster from which it never completely recovered. ST Ld, a town of north-western France, capital of the depart- ment of Manche, 47 J m. W. by S. of Caen by rail. Pop. (1906) town 9379; commune, 12,181. St L6 is situated on a rocky hill on the right bank of the Vire. Its chief building is the Gothic church of Notre-Dame, dating mainly from the i6th century. The facade, flanked by two lofty towers and richly decorated, is impressive, despite its lack of harmony. There is a Gothic pulpit outside the choir. In the h6tel-de-ville is the " Torigni marble," the pedestal of an ancient statue, the in- scriptions on which relate chiefly to the annual assemblies of the Gallic deputies held at Lyons under the Romans. The modern church of Sainte-Croix preserves a Romanesque portal which belonged to the church of an ancient Benedictine abbey. St L6 is the seat of a prefect and has tribunals of first instance and of commerce, a training college for masters, a school of drawing, a branch of the Bank of France, a chamber of arts and manu- factures, and a government stud. The town has trade in grain, fat stock, troop-horses and farm produce, and carries on tanning, wool-spinning and bleaching and the manufacture of woollen and other fabrics. St L6, called Briovera in the Gallo-Roman period, owes its present name to St L6 (Laudus), bishop of Coutances (d. 568). In the middle ages St L6 became an important fortress as well as a centre for the weaving industry. It sustained numerous sieges, the last in 1574, when the town, which had embraced Calvinism, was stormed by the Catholics and many of its inhabitants massacred. In 1800 the town was made capital of its department in place of Coutances. ST LOUIS, the chief city and a port of entry of Missouri, and the fourth in population among the cities of the United States, situated on the W. bank of the Mississippi river, about 20 m. below its confluence with the Missouri, 200 m. above the influx of the Ohio, and 1270 m. above the Gulf of Mexico, occupying a land area of 61-37 sq. m. in a commanding central position in the great drainage basin of the Mississippi system, the richest portion of the continent. Pop. (1880) 350,518, (1890) 451,770, (1000) 575,238, (191°) 687,029. The central site is marked by an abrupt terraced rise from the river to an easily sloping tableland, 4 or 5 m. long and somewhat less than i m. broad, behind which are rolling hills. The length of the river-front is about 19 m. The average elevation of the city is more than 425 ft.; and the recorded extremes of low and high water on the river are 379 and 428 ft. (both established in 1844). The higher portions of the city lie about 200 ft. above the river level, and in general the site is so elevated that there can be no serious interruption of business except by extraordinary floods. The natural drainage is excellent, and the sewerage system, long very imperfect, has been made adequate. The street plan is approximately rectilinear. The stone-paved wharf or river-front, known as the Levee or Front Street, is 3-7 m. long. Market Street, running E. and W., is regarded as the central thoroughfare; and the numbering of the streets is systematized with reference to this line and the river. Broadway (or Fifth Street, from the river) and Olive Street are the chief shopping centres; Washington Avenue, First (or Main) and Second Streets are devoted to wholesale trade; and Fourth Street is the financial centre. The most important public buildings are the Federal building, built of Maine granite; the county court house (1839- 1862, $1,199,872), — a semi-classic, plain, massive stone structure, the Four Courts (1871, $755,000), built of cream-coloured Joliet stone, and a rather effective city hall (1890-1904, $2,000,000), in Victorian Gothic style in brick and stone. The chief slave- market before the Civil War was in front of the Court House. The City Art Museum, a handsome semi-classic structure of original design, and the Tudor-Gothic building of the Washington University, are perhaps the most satisfying structures in the city architecturally. Among other noteworthy buildings are the Public Library, the Mercantile Library, the Mercantile, the Mississippi Valley, the Missouri-Lincoln, and the St Louis Union Trust Com- pany buildings; the German-Renaissance home of the Mercantile Club; the florid building of the St Louis Club; the Merchants' Exchange; the Missouri School for the Blind; the Coliseum, built in 1897 for conventions, horse shows, &c., torn down in 1907 and rebuilt in Jefferson Avenue, and the Union Station, used by all the railways entering the city. This last was opened in 1894, and cost, including the site, $6,500,000; has a train-shed with thirty-two tracks, covers some eleven acres, and is one of the largest and finest railway stations in the world. The city owns a number of markets. In 1907 a special architectural commission, appointed to supervise the construction of new municipal buildings, purchased a site adjacent to the City Hall, for new city courts and jail, which were begun soon afterwards. The valley of Mill Creek (once a lake bed, " Chouteau Pond," and afterwards the central sewer) traverses the city from W. to E. and gives entry to railways coming from the W. into the Union Station. The terminal system for connecting Missouri with Illinois includes, in addition to the central passenger station, vast centralized freight warehouses and depots; an elevated railway along the levee; passenger and freight ferries across the Mississippi with railway connexions; two bridges across the river; and a tunnel leading to one of them under the streets of the city along the river front. The Merchants' Bridge (1887- 1890, $3,000,000), used solely by the railways, is 1366-5 ft. long in channel span, with approaches almost twice as long. The Eads Bridge (1868-1874; construction cost $6,536,730, total cost about $10,000,000) is 3 m. farther down the river; it carries both wagon ways and railway tracks, is 1627 ft. clear between shore abutments, and has three spans. Built entirely of steel above the piers, it is a happy combination of strength and grace, and was considered a marvel when erected. St Louis has exceptionally fine residential streets that are accounted among the handsomest in the world. The most notable are Portland Place, Westmoreland Place, Vandeventer Place, Kingsbury Place, &c., in the neighbourhood of Forest Park: broad parked avenues, closed with ornamental gateways, and flanked by large houses in fine grounds. The park system of the city is among the finest in the country, containing in 1910 2641-5 acres (cost to 1909, $6,417,745). Forest Park (1372 acres), maintained mainly in a natural, open-country state, is the largest single member of the system. In one end of it was held the Louisiana Purchase Exposition in 1904. Tower Grove Park (277 acres) and the Missouri Botanical Gardens ST LOUIS (45 acres), probably the finest of their kind in the country, were gifts to the city from a public-spirited citizen, Henry Shaw (1800-1889), who also endowed the botanical school of Washington University. Carondelet (180 acres), O'Fallon (158 acres), and Fairground( 1 29 acres, including a 6s-acre athletic field) are the finest of the other parks. King's Highway is a boulevard (partly completed in 1910) from the Mississippi on the S. to the Mississippi on the N., crossing the western part of the city. In accord with a general movement in American cities late in the ipth century, St Louis made a beginning in the provision of small " neighbourhood parks," intended primarily to better the lives of the city's poor, and vacation playgrounds for children; and for this purpose five blocks of tenements were condemned by the city. In the different parks and public places are statues of Columbus, Shakespeare (Tower Grove Park) and Humboldt (Tower Grove Park), by Ferdinand von Mueller of Munich; a replica of the Schiller monument at Marbach in Germany, and of Houdon's Washington (Lafayette Park) ; statues of Thomas Hart Ben ton (Lafayette Park; by Harriet Hosmer), of Francis Preston Blair (W. W. Gardner) and Edward Bates (J. W. McDonald), both in Forest Park, and of General Grant (R. P. Bringhurst) in the City Hall Park; all of these being in bronze. In the cemeteries of the city — of which the largest are Belief ontaine (350 acres) and Calvary (415 acres) — there are notable monuments to Henry Shaw, and to Nathaniel Lyon, Sterling Price, Stephen W. Kearny and W. T. Sherman, all closely associated with St Louis or Missouri. There are various lake, river and highland pleasure-resorts near the city; and about 12 m. S. is Jefferson Barracks, a national military post of the first class. The old arsenal within the city, about which centred the opening events of the Civil War in Missouri, has been mainly abandoned, and part of the grounds given to the municipality for a park. The annual fair, or exposition, was held in the autumn of each year — except in war time — from 1855 to 1902, ceasing with the preparations for the World's Fair of 1904. One day of Fair Week (" Big Thursday ") was a city holiday; and one evening of the week was given over after 1878 to a nocturnal illuminated pageant known as the Procession of the Veiled Prophet, with accompaniments in the style of the carnival (Mardi Gras) at New Orleans; this pageant is still continued. Among the educational institutions of the city, Washington University, a largely endowed, non-sectarian, co-educational school opened in 1857, is the most prominent. Under its control are three secondary schools, Smith Academy and the Manual Training School for Boys, and Mary Institute for Girls. The university embraces a department of arts and sciences, which includes a college and a school of engineering and architecture, and special schools of law, medicine (1899), dentistry, fine arts, social economy and botany. Affiliated with the university is the St Louis School of Social Economy, called until 1909 the St Louis School of Philanthropy, and in 1906- 1909 affiliated with the university of Missouri. The Russell Sage Foundation co-operates with this school. In 1909 Washington University had 1045 students. In 1905 the department of arts and sciences and the law school were removed to the outskirts of the city, where a group of buildings of Tudor-Gothic style in red Missouri granite were erected upon grounds, which with about $6,000,000 for buildings and endowment, were given to the univer- sity. St Louis University had its beginnings (1818) as a Latin academy, became a college in 1820, and was incorporated as a university in 1832. One of the leading Jesuit colleges of the United States, it is the parent-school of six other prominent Jesuit colleges in the Middle West. In 1910 it comprised a school of philosophy and science ( 1 832 ) , a divinity school ( 1 834) , a medical school ( 1 836) , a law school (1843), a dental school (1908), a college, three academies and a commercial department; and its enrolment was 1181. It is the third largest, and the Christian Brothers' College (1851), also Roman Catholic, is the fourth largest educational institution in the state. The Christian Brothers' College had in 1910 30 instructors and 500 students, most of whom were in the preparatory department. Besides the Divinity School of St Louis University, there are three theological seminaries, Concordia (Evangelical Lutheran, 1839), Eden Evangelical College (German Evangelical Synod of North America, 1850) and Kenrick Theological Seminary (Roman Catholic, 1894). There are two evening law schools, Benton College (1896) and Metropolitan College (1901). The public school system came into national prominence under the administration (1867-1880) of William T. Harris, and for many years has been recognized as one of the best in the United States. The first permanent kindergarten in the country in connexion with the public schools was established in St Louis in 1 873 by W. T. Harris (?•»•), then superintendent of schools, and Miss Susan Ellen Blow. The first public kindergarten training school was established at the same time. There is a teachers' college in the city school system, and there are special schools for backward children. Several school buildings have been successfully used as civic centres. The city has an excellent educational museum, material from which is avail- able for object lessons in nature study, history, geography, art, &c., in all public schools. In the year 1907-1908 the total receipts for public education were $4,219,000, and the expenditure was $3,789,604. The City Board of Education was chartered in 1897. The German element has lent strength to musical and gymnastic societies. The Museum and School of Fine Arts was established in 1879 as the Art Department of Washington University. In 1908 it first received the proceeds of a city tax of one-fifth mill per dollar, and in 1909 it was reorganized as the City Art Museum. In its building (the " Art Palace," built in 1903-1904 at a cost of $943,000 for the Louisiana Purchase Exposition; now owned by the city) in Forest Park are excellent collections (largely loaned) of sculpture and paintings (illustrating particularly the development of American art) and of art objects. The School of Fine Arts, now separate from the museum and a part of Washington University, has classes in painting, drawing, design, illustration, modelling, pottery, book- binding, &c. Among the libraries the greatest collections are those of the Mercantile Library (in 1910, 136,000 volumes and pamphlets), a subscription library founded in 1846, and the public library (1865) — a fine city library since 1894, with 312,000 volumes in 1910 and six branch libraries, the gift of Andrew Carnegie, who also gave the city $500,000 towards the new public library, which was begun in 1909 and cost $1,500,000. Other notable collections are those of the St Louis Academy of Science and of the Missouri Botanical Gardens. There are at least three newspapers of national repute : the Republic, established in 1808 as the Missouri Gazette, and in 1822—1886 called the Missouri Republican; the Globe-Democrat (1852); and the Westliche Post (1857). In trade, industry and wealth St Louis is one of the most substantial cities of the Union. Its growth has been steady; but without such " booms " as have marked the history of many western cities, and especially Chicago, of which St Louis was for several decades the avowed rival. The primacy of the northern city was clear, however, by 1880. St Louis has borne a reputa- tion for conservatism and solidity. Its manufactures aggregate three-fifths the value of the total output of the state. In 1880 their value was $114,333,375, and in 1890 $228,700,000; the value of the factory product was $193, 732, 788 in 1900, and in 1905 $267,307,038 (increase 1900-1905, 38%). Tobacco goods, malt liquors, boots and shoes and slaughtering and meat-packing products were the leading items in 1905. The packing industry is even more largely developed outside the city limits and across the river in East St Louis. St Louis is the greatest manufacturer of tobacco products among American cities, and probably in the world; the total in 1905 was 8-96% of the total out- put of manufactured tobacco in the United States; and the output of chewing and smoking tobacco and snuff in 1900 constituted 23'5% and in 1905 23-7% of the product of the country. St Louis is also the foremost producer of white lead, street and railway cars, and wooden ware; and in addition to these and the items above particularized, has immense manufactories of clothing, coffee and spices (roasted), paints, stoves and furnaces, flour, hardware, drugs and chemicals and clay products. One of its breweries is said to be the largest in the world. Aside from traffic in its own products, the central position of the city in the Mississippi Valley gives it an immense trade in the pro- ducts of that tributary region, among which grains, cotton, tobacco, lumber, live stock and their derived products are the staples. In addition, it is a jobbing centre of immense interests in the distribu- tion of other goods. The greatest lines of wholesale trade are dry goods, millinery and notions; groceries and allied lines; boots and shoes; tobacco; shelf and heavy hardware; furniture; railway supplies; street and railway cars; foundry and allied products; drugs, chemicals and proprietary medicines; beer; wooden- ware; agricultural implements; hides; paints; paint oils and white lead; electrical supplies; stoves, ranges and furnaces; and furs — the value of these different items ranging from 70 to 10 million dollars each.1 According to the St Louis Board of Trade, St Louis is the largest primary fur market of the world, drawing supplies even from northern Canada. As a wool market Boston alone surpasses it, and as a vehicle market it stands in the second or third place. In the other industries just named, it claims to stand first among the cities of the Union. It is one of the greatest interior cotton markets of the country — drawing its supplies mainly from Arkansas, Texas and Oklahoma — but a large part of its receipts are for shipment on through bills of lading, and are not net receipts handled by its 1 These are arranged in the order shown by the Annual Statement for 1906 reported to the Merchants' Exchange. 26 ST LOUIS own factors. The gross cotton movement continues to increase, but the field of supply has been progressively lessened by the development of Galveston and other ports on the gulf. As a grain and stock market St Louis has felt the competition of Kansas City and St Joseph. River and railway transportation built up in turn the command- ing commercial position of the city. The enormous growth of river traffic in the decade before 1860 gave it at the opening of the Civil War an incontestable primacy in the West. In 1910 about twenty independent railway systems, great and small (including two terminal roads within the city), gave outlet and inlet to commerce at St Louis; and of these fifteen are among the greatest systems of the country: the Baltimore & Ohio South- western, the Chicago, Burlington & Quincy, the Chicago & Alton, the Cleveland, Cincinnati, Chicago & St Louis, the St Louis & San Francisco, the Illinois Central, the Missouri, Kansas & Texas, the Missouri Pacific, the Pennsylvania, the St Louis South- Western, the Southern, the Wabash, the Louisville & Nashville, the Mobile & Ohio, and the Toledo, St Louis & Western. The construction of the Missouri Pacific Railway system was begun at St Louis in 1850, and various other roads were started in the next two years. For several decades railway develop- ment served only to increase the commercial primacy of the city in the southern Mississippi Valley, but in more recent years the concentration of roads at Kansas City enabled that place to draw from the west and south-west an immense trade once held by St Louis. River freighting is of very slight importance. St Louis is a port of entry for foreign commerce; its imports in 1907 were valued at $7,442,967; in 1909 at $6,362,770. The population of St Louis in 1840 was 16,469; in 1850 it was 77,860 (seventh in size of the cities of the country); in 1860, 160,773; in 1870, 310,864 (third in size); in 1880, 350,518; in 1890, 451,770; in 1900, 575,238; and in 1910, 687,029. Since 1890 it has been fourth in population among the cities of the United States. Of the population in 1000 (575,238) 111,356 were foreign-born and 35,516 were negroes. Of the foreign-born in 1900, 58,781 were Germans, 19,421 were Irish, 5800 were English, 4785 Russian. In 1900, 154,746 inhabitants of St Louis were children of German parents. Under the state constitution of 1875 St Louis, as a city of 100,000 inhabitants, was authorized to frame its own charter, and also to separate from St Louis county. These rights were exercised in 1876. The General Assembly of the state holds the same powers over St Louis as over other cities. The electorate may pass upon proposed amendments to the charter at any election, after due precedent publication thereof. The mayor holds office for four years. In 1823 the mayor was first elected by popular vote and .the municipal legislature became unicameral. The bicameral system was again adopted in 1839. The municipal assembly consists of a Council of 13 chosen at large for four years — half each two years — and a House of Delegates, 28 in number, chosen by wards for two years. A number of chief executive officers are elected for four years; the mayor and Council appoint others, and the appointment is made at the middle of the mayor's term in order to lessen the immediate influence of municipal patronage upon elections. Single com- missioners control the parks, streets, water service, harbour and wharves, and sewers, and these constitute, with the mayor, a board of public improvement. Under an enabling act of 1907 the municipal assembly in 1909 created a public service com- mission, of three members, appointed by the mayor. The measure of control exercised by the state is important, the governor appointing the excise (liquor-licence) commissioner, the board of election commissioners, the inspector of petroleum and of tobacco, and (since 1861) the police board. St Louis is normally Republican in politics, and Missouri Democratic. Taxes for state and municipal purposes are collected by the city. The school board, as in very few other cities of the country, has independent taxing power. The city owns the steamboat landings and draws a small revenue from their rental. The heaviest expenses are for streets and parks, debt payments, police and education. The bonded debt in 1910 was $27,815,312, and the assessed valuation of property in that year was $550,207,640. The city maintains hospitals, a poor-house, a reformatory work-house, an industrial school for children, and an asylum for the insane. The water-supply of the city is derived from the Mississippi, and is therefore potentially inexhaustible. Settling basins and a coagu- lant chemical plant (1904) are used to purify the water before distribution. After the completion of the Chicago drainage canal the state of Missouri endeavoured to compel its closure, on the ground that it polluted the Mississippi; but it was established to the satisfaction of the Supreme Court of the United States that the back- flush from Lake Michigan had the contrary effect upon the Illinois river, and therefore upon the Mississippi. Except for sediment the water-supply is not impure or objectionable. No public utilities, except the water-works, markets and public grain elevators, are owned by the city. The street railways are controlled — since a state law of 1899 permitted their consolidation — by one corporation, though a one-fare, universal transfer 5-cent rate is in general opera- tion. A single corporation has controlled the gas service from 1846 to 1873 and since 1890, though under no exclusive franchise; and the city has not the right of purchase. St Louis was settled as a trading post in 1764 by Pierre Laclede Liguest (1724-1778), representative of a company to which the French crown had granted a monopoly of the trade of the Missouri river country. When, by the treaty of Paris of 1763, the portion of Louisiana E. of the Mississippi was ceded by France to Great Britain, many of the French inhabitants of the district of the Illinois removed into the portion of Louisiana W. of the river, which had passed in 1762 under Spanish sovereignty; and of this lessened territory of upper Louisiana St Louis became the seat of government. In 1767 it was a log-cabin village of perhaps 500 inhabitants. Spanish rule became an actuality in 1770 and continued until 1804, when it was momentarily sup- planted by French authority — existent theoretically since 1800 — and then, after the Louisiana Purchase, by the sovereignty of the United States. In 1780 the town was attacked by Indian allies of Great Britain. Canadian-French hunters and trappers and boatmen, a few Spaniards and other Europeans, some Indians, more half-breeds, and a considerable body of Americans and negro slaves made up the motley population that became inhabitants of the United States. The fur trade was growing rapidly. Under American rule there was added the trade of a military supply-point for the Great West, and in 1817-1810 steamship traffic was begun with Louisville, New Orleans, and the lower Missouri river. Meanwhile, in 1808, St Louis was incorporated as a town, and in 1823 it became a city. The city charter became effective in March 1823. The early 'thirties marked the beginning of its great prosperity, and the decade 1850-1860 was one of colossal growth, due largely to the river trade. All freights were being moved by steamship as early as 1825. The first railway was begun in 1850. At the opening of the Civil War the commercial position of the city was most commanding. Its prosperity, however, was dependent upon the prosperity of the South, and received a fearful set-back in the war. When the issue of secession or adherence to the Union had been made up in 1861, the outcome in St Louis, where the fate of the state must necessarily be decided, was of national importance. St Louis was headquarters for an army department and con- tained a great national arsenal. The secessionists tried to manoeuvre the state out of the Union by strategy, and to seize the arsenal. The last was prevented by Congressman Francis Preston Blair, Jr., and Captain Nathaniel Lyon, first a sub- ordinate and later commander at the arsenal. The garrison was strengthened; in April the president entrusted Blair and other loyal civilians with power to enlist loyal citizens, and put the city under martial law if necessary; in May ten regiments were ready — made up largely of German-American Republican clubs (" Wide Awakes "), which had been at first purely political, then — when force became necessary to secure election rights to anti-slavery men — semi-military, and which now were quickly made available for war; and on the loth of May Captain Lyon surrounded and made prisoners a force of secessionists quartered in Camp Jackson on the outskirts of the city. A street riot followed, and 28 persons were killed by the volleys of the military. St Louis was held by the Union forces throughout the war. ST LOUIS— ST LUCIA 27 During a quarter century following 1857 the city was the centre of an idealistic philosophical movement that has had hardly any counterpart in American culture except New England trans- cendentalism. Its founders were William T. Harris (q.v.) and Henry C. Brockmeyer (b. 1828), who was lieutenant-governor of the state in 1876-1880. A. Bronson Alcott was one of the early lecturers to the group which gathered around these two, a group which studied Hegel and Kant, Plato and Aristotle. Brockmeyer published excellent versions of Hegel's Unabridged Logic, Phenomenology and Psychology. Harris became the greatest of American exponents of Hegel. Other members of the group were Thomas Davidson (1840-1900), Adolph E. Kroeger, the translator of Fichte, Anna Callender Brackett (b. 1836), who published in 1886 an English version of Rosenkranz's History of Education, Denton Jaques Snider (b. 1841), whose best work has been on Froebel, and William McKendree Bryant (b. 1843), who wrote Hegel's Philosophy of Art (1879) and Hegel's Educa- tional Ideas (1896). This Philosophical Society published (1867- 1893) at St Louis The Journal of Speculative Philosophy, the first periodical of the sort in English. Since the war the city's history has been signalized chiefly by economic development. A period in this was auspiciously closed in 1904 by the holding of a world's fair to celebrate the centennial of the purchase from France, in 1803, of the Louisiana territory — since then divided into 13 states, and containing in 1900 some 1 2,500,000 inhabitants. Preparations for this Louisiana Purchase Exposition began in 1898. It was the largest world's fair held to date, the site covering 1240 acres, of which 250 were under roof. The total cost, apart from individual exhibitions, was about $42,500,000, of which the national government contributed $5,000,000 and the city of St Louis and its citizens $10,000,000. Altogether 12,804,616 paid admissions were collected (total admissions 19,694,855) during the seven months that it was open, and there was a favourable balance at the close of about $1,000,000. Up to 1848 St Louis was controlled in politics almost absolutely by the Whigs; since then it has been more or less evenly con- tested by the Democrats against the Whigs and Republicans. The Republicans now usually have the advantage. As men- tioned before, the state is habitually Democratic; " boss " rule in St Louis was particularly vicious in the late 'nineties, and corruption was the natural result of ring rule — the Democratic bosses have at times had great power — and of the low pay — only $25 monthly — of the city's delegates and councilmen. But the reaction came, and with it a strong movement for independent voting. Fire, floods, epidemics, and wind have repeatedly attacked the city. A great fire in 1849 burned along the levee and adjacent streets, destroying steamers, buildings, and goods worth, by the estimate of the city assessor, more than $6,000,000. Cholera broke out in 1832-1833, 1849-1851, and 1866, causing in three months of 1849 almost 4000 deaths, or the death of a twentieth of all inhabitants. Smallpox raged in 1872-1875. These epidemics probably reflect the one-time lamentable lack of proper sewerage. Great floods occurred in 1785, 1811, 1826, 1844, 1872, 1885 and 1903; those of 1785 and 1844 being the most remarkable. There were tornadoes in 1833, 1852 and 1871; and in 1896 a cyclone of 20 minutes' duration, accom- panied by fire but followed fortunately by a tremendous rain, destroyed or wrecked 8500 buildings and caused a loss of property valued at more than $10,000,000. EAST ST Louis, a city of St Clair county, Illinois, U.S.A., on the E. bank of the Mississippi, lies opposite St Louis, Missouri. Pop. (1880), 9185; (1890), 15,169; (1900), 29,655, of whom 3920 were foreign born (mostly German and Irish); (1910 census) 58,547. It is one of the great railway centres of the country. Into it enter from the east sixteen lines of railway, which cross to St Louis by the celebrated steel arch bridge and by the Merchants' Bridge. It is also served by three inter- • urban electric railways. The site of East St Louis is in the " American Bottom," little above the high-water mark of the river. This " bottom " stretches a long distance up and down the river, with a breadth of 10 or 1 2 m. It is intersected by many sloughs and crescent-shaped lakes which indicate former courses of the river. The manufacturing interests of East St Louis are important, among the manufactories being packing establish- ments, iron and steel works, rolh'ng-mills and foundries, flour- mills, glass works, paint works and wheel works. By far the. most important industry is slaughtering and meat packing: both in 1900 and in 1905 East St Louis ranked sixth among the cities of the United States in this industry; its product in 1900 was valued at $27,676,818 (out of a total for all industries of $32,460,957), and in 1905 the product of the slaughtering and meat-packing establishments in and near the limits of East St Louis was valued at $39,972,245, in the same year the total for all industries within the corporate limits being only $37,586,198. The city has a large horse and mule market. East St Louis was laid out about 1818, incorporated as a town in 1859, and chartered as a city in 1865. Consult the Encyclopaedia of the History of St Louis (4 vols., St Louis, 1899); J. T. Scharf, History of St Louis City and County . . . including Biographical Sketches (2 vols., Philadelphia, 1883); E. H. Shepherd, Early History of St Louis and Missouri . . . 1763- 1843 (St Louis, 1870); F. Billon, Annals of St Louis . . . 1804 to 1821 (2 vols., St Louis, 1886-1888); G. Anderson, Story of a Border City during the Civil War (Boston, 1908); The Annual Statement of the Trade and Commerce of St Louis . . . reported to the Merchants' Exchange, by its secretary. ST LOUIS, the capital of the French colony of Senegal, West Africa, with a population (1904) of 24,070, or including the suburbs, 28,469. St Louis, known to the natives as N'dar, is 163 m. by rail N.N.E. of Dakar and is situated on an island n| m. above the mouth of the Senegal river, near the right bank, there separated from the sea by a narrow strip of sand called the Langue de Barbarie. This strip of sand is occupied by the villages of N'dar Toute and Guet N'dar. Three bridges connect the town with the villages; and the Pont Faidherbe, 2132 ft. long, affords communication with Bouetville, a suburb on the left bank, and the terminus of the railway to Dakar. The houses of the European quarter have for the most part flat roofs, balconies and terraces. Besides the governor's residence the most prominent buildings are the cathedral, the great mosque, the court-house, the barracks and military offices, and the docks. The round beehive huts of Guet N'dar are mainly inhabited by native fishermen. N'dar Toute consists of villas with gardens, and is a summer watering-place. There is a pleasant public garden, and N'dar Toute is approached by a magnificent alley of palm-trees. The low-lying position of St Louis and the extreme heat render it unhealthy, whilst the sandy nature of the soil causes intense inconvenience. The mouth of the Senegal being obstructed by a shifting bar of sand, the steamships of the great European lines do not come up to St Louis; passengers embark and land at Dakar, on the eastern side of Cape Verde. Ships for St Louis have often to wait outside or inside the bar for days or weeks, and partial unloading is frequently necessary. From July to the end of September — that is during flood-time — the water over the bar is, however, deep enough to enable vessels to reach St Louis without difficulty. St Louis is believed to have been the site of a European settlement since the isth century, but the present town was founded in 1626 by Dieppe merchants known as the Cpmpagnie normande. It is the oldest colonial establishment in Africa belonging to France (see SENEGAL). Its modern development dates from 1854. The town, however, did not receive municipal government till 1872. All citizens, irrespective of colour, can vote. From 1895 to 1903 St Louis was not only the capital of Senegal, but the residence of the governor-general of French West Africa. In November of the last- named year the governor-general removed to Dakar. Small forts defend St Louis from the land side — the surrounding country, the Cayor, being inhabited by a warlike race, which previously to the building (1882-1885) °f the St Louis- Dakar railway was a continual source of trouble. The town carries on a very active trade with all the countries watered by the Senegal and the middle Niger. St Louis is connected with Brest by a direct cable, and with Cadiz via the Canary Islands. ST LUCIA, the largest of the British Windward Islands, West Indies, in 14° N., 61° W., 24 m. S. of Martinique and 21 m. N.E. of St Vincent. Its area is 233 sq. m., length 42 m., maximum breadth 1 2 m., and its coast-line is 1 50 m. long. It is considered one of the loveliest of all the West Indian islands. It is a mass 28 ST MACAIRE— ST MALO of mountains, rising sheer from the water, their summits bathed in perpetual mist. Impenetrable forests alternate with fertile plains, and deep ravines and frowning precipices with beautiful bays and coves. Everywhere there is luxuriant vegetation. Les Pitons (2720 and 2680 ft.) are the chief natural feature — two immense pyramids of rock rising abruptly from the sea, their slopes, inclined at an angle of 60°, being clad on three sides with densest verdure. No connexion has been traced between them and the mountain system of the island. In the S.W. also is the volcano of Soufnere (about 4000 ft.), whose crater is 3 acres in size and covered with sulphur and cinders. The climate is humid, the rain- fall varying from 70 to 120 in. per annum, with an average tempera- ture of 80 F. The soil is deep and rich; the main products are sugar, cocoa, logwood, coffee, nutmegs, mace, kola-nuts and vanilla, all of which are exported. Tobacco also is grown, but not for export. The usine or central factory system is established, there being four government sugar-mills. Snakes, formerly prevalent, have been almost exterminated by the introduction of the mongoose. Only about a third of the island is cultivated, the rest being crown land under virgin forest, abounding in timber suitable for the finest cabinet work. The main import trade up to 1904 was from Great Britain; since then, owing to the increased coal imports from the United States, the imports are chiefly from other countries. The majority of the exports go to the United States and to Canada. In the ten years 1898-1907 the imports averaged £322,000 a year; the exports £195,000 a year. Bunker coal forms a large item both in imports and exports. Coal, sugar, cocoa and logwood form the chief exports. Education is denominational, assisted by government grants. The large majority of the schools are under the control of the Roman Catholics, to whom all the government primary schools were handed over in 1898. There is a government agricultural school. St Lucia is controlled by an administrator (responsible to the governor of the Windward Islands) , assisted by an executive council. The legislature consists of the administrator and a council of nominated members. Revenue and expenditure in the period 1901— 1907 balanced at about £60,000 a year. The law of the island preserves, in a modified form, the laws of the French monarchy. Castries, the capital, on the N.W. coast, has a magnificent land- locked harbour. There is a concrete wharf 650 ft. long with a depth alongside of 27 ft., and a wharf of wood 552 ft. in length. It is the principal coaling station of the British fleet in the West Indies, was strongly fortified, and has been the military headquarters. (The troops were removed and the military works stopped in 1905.) It is a port of registry, and the facilities it offers as a port of call are widely recognized, the tonnage of ships cleared and entered rising from 1,555,000 in 1898 to 2,627,000 in 1907. Pop. {1901) 7910. Soufriere, m the south, the only other town of any importance, had a population of 2394. The Canbs have disappeared from the island, and the bulk of the .inhabitants are negroes. Their language is a French patois, but English is gradually replacing it. There is a small colony of East Indian coolies, and the white inhabitants are mostly Creoles of French descent. The total population of the island (1901) is 49.833- History. — St Lucia is supposed to have been discovered by Columbus in 1502, and to have been named by the Spaniards after the saint on whose day it was discovered. It was inhabited by Caribs, who killed the majority of the first white people (Englishmen) who attempted to settle on the island (1605). For two centuries St Lucia was claimed both by France and by England. In 1627 the famous Carlisle grant included St Lucia among British possessions, while in 1635 the king of France granted it to two of his subjects. In 1638 some 130 English from St Kills formed a selllemenl, bul in 1641 were killed or driven away by Ihe Caribs. The French in 1650 senl seltlers from Martinique who concluded a treaty of peace with the Caribs in 1660. Thomas Warner, natural son of the governor of St Kills, allacked and overpowered Ihe French selllers in 1663, bul Ihe peace of Breda (1667) restored it to France and it became nominally a dependency of Martinique. The British still claimed Ihe island as a dependency of Barbadoes, and in 1722 George I. made a granl of il lo the duke of Monlague. The year following French Iroops from Martinique compelled the British settlers to evacuate the island. In 1748 both France and Great Brilain recognized Ihe island as " neutral." In 1762 its inhabitanls surrendered lo Admiral Rodney and General Moncklon. By Ihe Ireaty of Paris (1763), however, the British acknowledged the claims of France, and steps were taken lo develop the resources of Ihe island. French planlers came from Si Vincenl and Grenada,collon and sugar plantations were formed, and in 1772 the island was said to have a population of 15,000, largely slaves. In 1778 it was captured by the British; its harbours were a rendezvous for the British squadrons and Gros Ilet Bay was Rodney's starting-point before his victory over the Comte de Grasse (April 1782). The peace of Versailles (1783) restored St Lucia to France, but in 1 794 it was surrendered to Admiral Jervis (Lord St Vincent). Viclor Hugues, a partisan of Robespierre, aided by insurgent slaves, made a strenuous resistance and recovered the island in June 1795. Sir Ralph Abercromby and Sir John Moore, at the head of 1 2,000 troops, were sent in 1796 to reduce the island, but it was not until 1797 that the revolutionists laid down their arms. By the trealy of Amiens Si Lucia was anew declared French. Bonaparte intended to make it the capital of the Antilles, but it once more capitulated to Ihe Brilish (June 1803) and was finally ceded lo Greal Brilain in 1814. In 1834, when the slaves were emanci- pated, there were in Si Lucia over 13,000 negro slaves, 2600 free men of colour and 2300 whites. The developmenl of Ihe island — half ruined by the revolutionary war — has been retarded by epidemics of cholera and smallpox, by the decline of the sugar- cane industry and other causes, such as the low level of education. The depression in Ihe sugar Irade led to the adoption of cocoa cultivalion. Efforts were also made lo planl settlers on the crown lands — with a fair amount of success. The colony success- fully surmounted the financial stringency caused by the with- drawal of the imperial troops in 1905. Pigeon Island, formerly an importanl mililary port, lies off Ihe N.W. end of Si Lucia, by Gros Ilel Bay. See Sir C. P. Lucas, Historical Geography in the British Colonies, vol. ii., " The West Indies " (2nd ed. revised by C. Atchley, Oxford, 1905), and the works there cited; also the annual reports on St Lucia issued by the Colonial Office. ST MACAIRE, a town of south-western France, in the depart- menl of Gironde, on Ihe Garonne, 29 m. S.E. of Bordeaux by rail. Pop. (1906), 2085. Si Macaire is imporlanl for ils medieval remains, which include a Iriple line of ramparls wilh old gale- ways. There are also several houses of Ihe I3lh and I4lh cenluries. The imposing church of Si Sauveur (nlh lo islh cenluries) has a doorway wilh beautiful 13th-century carving and interesting mural paintings. St Macaire (anc. Ligena) owes its name to the saint whose relics were preserved in the monastery of which the church of St Sauveur is the principal remnanl. ST MAIXENT, a lown of weslern France, in Ihe departmenl of Deux-Sevres, on the Sevre Niortaise, 15 m. N.E. ofNiortby rail. Pop. (1906), 4102. The town has a fine abbey church built from the I2th to the isth century, but in great part destroyed by the Protestants in the i6th cenlury and rebuill from 1670 lo 1682 in the flamboyant Golhic style. The chief parts anterior to this date are the nave, which is Romanesque, and a lofty isth-cenlury lower over the west front. The crypt contains the tomb of Saint Maxentius, second abbol of Ihe monaslery, which was founded about 460. The town has a com- munal college, a chamber of arts and manufactures, and an infantry school for non-commissioned officers preparing for the rank of sub-lieutenant. It was Ihe birthplace of Colonel Denfert- Rochereau, defender of Belfort in 1870-1871, and has a slalue to him. The industries include dyeing and the manufacture of hosiery, muslard and plaster. The prosperity of the lown was al ils heighl afler Ihe promulgalion of Ihe edicl of Nanles, when il numbered 12,000 inhabilants. ST MALO, a seaporl of weslern France, capital of an arrondisse- ment in thedeparlment of llle-et-Vilaine, 51 m.N.N.W. of Rennes by rail. Pop. (1906) town, 8727; commune, 10,647. St Malo is siluated on the English Channel on the right bank of the estuary of the Ranee at its mouth. It is a garrison town sur- rounded by ramparls which include portions dating from the 1 4th, isth and f6th cenluries, bul as a whole were rebuill at the end of the iyth century according to Vauban's plans, and restored in the igth cenlury. The mosl importanl of the gales are lhal of Si Vincenl and Ihe Grande Porte, defended by two massive isth-cenlury towers. The granite island on which St Malo stands communicates with the mainland on the north- east by a causeway known as Ihe " Sillon " (furrow), 650 ft. long, and al one time only 46 ft. broad, though now three times that breadth. In the sea round aboul lie other granite rocks, SAINT-MARC GIRARDIN— SAINT-MARTIN 29 which have been turned to account in the defences of the coast; on the islet of the Grand Bey is the tomb (1848) of Frangois Auguste, vicomte de Chateaubriand, a native of the town. The rocks and beach are continually changing their appearance, owing to the violence of the tides; spring- tides sometimes rise 50 ft. above low-water level, and the sea sometimes washes over the ramparts. The harbour of St Malo lies south of the town in the creek separating it from the neighbouring town of St Servan. Including the contiguous and connected basins belonging more especially to St Servan, it comprises an outer basin, a tidal harbour, two wet-docks and an inner reservoir, affording a total length of quayage of over 2 m. The wet-docks have a minimum depth of 1310 15 ft. on sill, but the tidal harbour is dry at low water. The vessels entered at St Malo-St Servan in 1906 numbered 1004 of 279,217 tons; cleared 1023 of 298,720 tons. The great bulk of trade is with England, the exports comprising large quantities of fruit, dairy-produce, early potatoes and other vegetables and slate. The chief imports are coal and timber. The London and South-Western railway maintains a regular service of steamers between Southampton and St Malo. The port carries on shipbuilding and equips a fleet for the Newfoundland cod-fisheries. The industries also include iron- and copper-founding and the manufacture of portable forges and other iron goods, cement, rope and artificial manures. The town is the seat of a sub-prefect and has tribunals of first instance and of commerce. Communication between the quays of St Malo and St Servan is maintained by a travelling bridge. St Malo is largely frequented for sea-bathing, but not so much as Dinard, on the opposite side of the Ranee. The town presents a tortuous maze of narrow streets and small squares lined with high and sometimes quaint buildings (e.g. the 16th-century house in which Rene Duguay-Trouin was born). Above all rises the stone spire (1859) of the cathedral, a building begun in the 1 2th century but added to and rebuilt at several subsequent periods. The castle (isth cent.), which defends the town towards the " Sillon," is flanked with four towers, one of which, the great keep, is an older and loftier structure, breached in 1378 by the duke of Lancaster. St Malo has statues to Chateaubriand, Duguay-Trouin and the privateer Robert Surcouf (1773-1827), natives of the town. The museum contains remains of the ship " La Petite Hermine," in which Jacques Cartier sailed to the St Lawrence (q.v.), and a natural history collection. In the 6th century the island on which St Malo stands was the retreat of Abbot Aaron, who gave asylum in his monastery to Malo (Maclovius or Malovius), a Cambrian priest, who came hither to escape the episcopal dignity, but afterwards became bishop of Aleth (now St Servan); the see was transferred to St Malo only in the I2th century. Henceforth the bishops of St Malo claimed the temporal sovereignty over the town, a claim which was resolutely disputed by the dukes of Brittany. The policy of the citizens themselves, who thus gained substantial powers of self-government, was directed by consistent hostility to England and consequently to the dukes. They took the side of Bishop Josselin de Rohan and his successor in their quarrel with dukes John IV. and John V., and it was not till 1424 that John V., by the agency of Charles VI. of France and with the sanction of the pope, finally established his authority over the town. la 1488 St Malo unsuccessfully resisted the French troops on behalf of the duke. During the troubles of the League the citizens hoped to establish a republican government, and on the nth of March 1590 they exterminated the royal garrison and imprisoned their bishop and the canons. But four years later they surrendered to Henry IV. of France. During the following century the maritime power of St Malo attained some importance. In November 1693 ar|d July 1695 the English vainly bombarded it. The people of St Malo had in the course of a single war captured upwards of 1500 vessels (several of them laden with gold and other treasure) and burned a considerable number more. Enriched by these successes and by the wealth they drew from the New World, the shipowners of the town not only supplied the king with the means necessary for the famous Rio de Janeiro expedition conducted by Duguay-Trouin in 1711, but also lent him large sums for carrying on the war of the Spanish Succession. In June 1758 the English sent a third expedition against St Malo under the command of Charles Spencer, third duke of Marlborough, and inflicted great loss on the royal shipping in the harbour of St Servan. But another expedi- tion undertaken in the following September received a complete check. In 1778 and during the wars of the Empire the St Malo privateers resumed their activity. In 1789 St Servan was separated from St Malo and in 1801 St Malo lost its bishopric. During the Reign of Terror the town was the scene of sanguinary executions. See M. J. Poulain, Hisloire de Saint-Malo . . . d'apres Us docu- ments inedits (2nd ed., Lille, 1887). ' SAINT-MARC GIRARDIN (1801-1873), French politician and man of letters, whose real name was MARC GIRARDIN, was born in Paris on the 22nd of February 1801. After a brilliant uni- versity career in Paris he began in 1828 to contribute to the Journal des Debuts, on the staff of which he remained for nearly half a century. At the accession of Louis Philippe he was appointed professor of history at the Sorbonne and master of requests in the Conseil d'Etat. Soon afterwards he exchanged his chair of history for one of poetry, continuing to contribute political articles to the Debats, and sitting as deputy in the chamber from 1835 to 1848. He was charged in 1833 with a mission to study German methods of education, and issued a report advocating the necessity of newer methods and of technical instruction. In 1844 he was elected a member of the Academy. During the revolution of February 1848 Girardin was for a moment a minister, but after the establishment of the republic he was not re-elected deputy. After the war of 1870-71 he was returned to the Bordeaux assembly by his old department — the Haute Vienne. His Orleanist tendencies and his objections to the republic were strong, and though he at first supported Thiers, he afterwards became a leader of the opposition to the president. He died, however, on the ist of April 1873 at Morsang-sur-Seine, before Thiers was actually driven from power. His chief work is his Cours de litterature dramatique (1843-1863), a series of lectures better described by its second title De I'usage des passions dans le drame. The author examines the passions, discussing the mode in which they are treated in ancient and modern drama, poetry and romance. The book is really a defence of the ancients against the moderns, and Girardin did not take into account the fact that only the best of ancient literature hae come down to us. Against the Romanticists he waged untiring war. Among his other works may be noticed Essais de litterature (2 vols. 1844), made up chiefly of contributions to the Debats, his Notices sur I'Allemagne (1834), and many volumes of collected Souvenirs, Reflexions, &c., on foreign countries and passing events. His latest works of literary importance were La Fontaine et les Fabulistes (1867) and an Etude sur J.-J. Rousseau (1870) which had appeared in the Revue des deux mondes. See Ch. Labitte, " Saint-Marc Girardin," in the Revue des deux mondes (Feb. 1845); Tamisier, Saint-Marc Girardin; etude lilteraire (1876); Hatzfield and Meunier, Les Critiques litteraires dit XIX' siede (1894). SAINT-MARTIN, LOUIS CLAUDE DE (1743-1803), French philosopher, known as " le philosophe inconnu," the name under which his works were published, was born at Amboise of a poor but noble family, on the i8th of January 1743. By his father's desire he tried first law and then the army as a profession. While in garrison at Bordeaux he came under the influence of Martinez de Pasquales, usually called a Portuguese Jew (although later research has made it probable that he was a Spanish Catholic), who taught a species of mysticism drawn from cabbalistic sources, and endeavoured to found thereon a secret cult with magical or theurgical rites. In 1771 Saint-Martin left the army to become a preacher of mysticism. His conversational powers made him welcome in Parisian salons, but his zeal led him to England, where he made the acquaintance of William Law (orary roadways for carriages and pedestrians are made across the ice and artificially lighted. In winter, too, thousands of peasants come in from the villages with their small Finnish horses and sledges to ply for hire. The Neva continues frozen for an average of 147 days in the year (25th November to 2ist April). It is unnavigable, however, for some time longer on account of the ice from Lake Ladoga, which is sometimes driven by easterly winds into the river at the end of April and beginning of May. The climate of St Petersburg is changeable and unhealthy. Frosts are made much more trying by the wind which accompanies them; and westerly gales in winter bring oceanic moisture and warmth, and melt the snow before and after hard frosts. The summer is hot, but short, lasting barely more than five or six weeks; a hot day, how- ever, is often followed by cold weather: changes of temperature amounting to 35° Fahr. within twenty-four hours are not un- common. In autumn a chilly dampness lasts for several weeks, and in spring cold and wet weather alternates with a few warm days. January. July. The Year. Mean temperature,' Fahr. . i5°-o 64°-o 38°-6 Rainfall, inches 0-9 2-6 18-8 Prevailing winds .... s.w! W. W. Average daily range of tempera- ture, Fahr 2°-2 IO°-2 7°-7 Topography. — The greater part of St Petersburg is situated on the mainland, on the left bank of the Neva, including the best streets, the largest shops, the bazaars and markets, the palaces, cathedrals and theatres, as well as all the railway stations, except that of the Finland railway. From the Liteinyi bridge to that of Nicholas a granite embankment, bordered by palaces and large private houses, lines the left bank of the Neva. About midway, behind a range of fine houses, stands the Admiralty, the very centre of the capital. Formerly a wharf, on which Peter the Great caused his first Baltic ship to be built in 1706, it is now the seat of the ministry of the navy and of the hydrographical department, the new Admiralty building standing farther down the Neva on the same bank. A broad square, partly laid out as a garden (Alexander Garden), surrounds the Admiralty on the west, south and east. To the west, opposite the senate, stands the fine memorial to Peter the Great, erected in 1782, and now backed by the cathedral of St Isaac. A bronze statue, a master- piece by the French sculptor Falconet, represents the founder of the city on horseback, at full gallop, ascending a rock and pointing to the Neva. South of the Admiralty is the ministry of war and to the east the imperial winter palace, the work of Rastrelli (1764), a fine building of mixed style; but its admirable proportions mask its huge dimensions. It communicates by a gallery with the Hermitage Fine Arts Gallery. A broad semi- circular square, adorned by the Alexander I. column (1834), separates the palace from the buildings of the general staff and the foreign ministry. The range of palaces and private houses facing the embankment above the Admiralty is interrupted by the macadamized " Field of Mars," formerly a marsh, but transformed at incredible expense into a parade-ground,. and the Lyetniy Sad (summer-garden) of Peter the Great. The Neva embankment is continued to a little below the Nicholas bridge under the name of " English embankment," and farther down by the new Admiralty buildings. The topography of St Petersburg is very simple. Three long streets, the main arteries of the capital, radiate from the Admiralty — the ProspektNevskiy(Neva Prospect), the Gorokhovaya, and the Prospekt Voznesenskiy (Ascension Prospect). Three girdles of canals, roughly speaking concentric, intersect these three streets — the Moika, the Catherine and the Fontanka; to these a number of streets run parallel. The Prospekt Nevskiy is a very broad street, runhing straight east -south-east for 3200 yds. from the Admiralty to the Moscow railway station, and thence 1650 yds. farther, bending a little to the south, until it again reaches the Neva at Kalashnikov Harbour, near the vast com- plex of the Alexander Nevski monastery (1713), the seat of the metropolitan of St Petersburg. The part of the street first mentioned owes its picturesque aspect to its width, its alrractive shops, and still more its animation. But the buildings which border it are architecturally poor. Neither the cathedra] of the Virgin of Kazan (an ugly imitation on a small scale of St Peter's in Rome), nor the still uglier Gostiniy Dvor (a two-storied quadrilateral building divided into second-rate shops), nor the Anichkov Palace (which resembles immense barracks), nor even the Roman Catholic and Dutch churches do any thing to embellish it. About midway between the public library and the Anichkov Palace an elegant square hides the old-fashioned Alexandra theatre; nor does a profusely adorned memorial (1873) to Catherine II. beautify it much. The Gorokhovaya is narrow and badly paved, and is shut in between gloomy houses occupied mostly by artizans. The Voznesenskiy Prospekt, on the con- trary, though as narrow as the last, has better houses. On the north, it passes into a series of large squares connected with that in which the monument of Peter the Great stands. One of them is occupied by the cathedral of St Isaac (of Dalmatia), and another by the memorial (1859) to Nicholas I., the gorgeousness and bad taste of which contrast strangely with the simplicity and significance of that of Peter the Great. The general aspect of the cathedral is imposing both without and within; but on the whole this architectural monument, built between 1819 and 1858 according to a plan of Montferrant, under the personal direction of Nicholas I., does not correspond either with its costliness (£2,431,300) or with the efforts put forth for its decoration by the best Russian artists. ST PETERSBURG 39 The eastern extremity of Vasilyevskiy Island is the centre of commercial activity; the stock exchange is situated there as well as the quays and storehouses. The remainder of the island is occupied chiefly by scientific and educational institutions — the academy of science, with a small observatory, the university, the philological institute, the academy of the first corps of cadets, the academy of arts, the marine academy, the mining institute and the central physical observatory, all facing the Neva. Petersburg Island contains the fortress of St Peter and St Paul (1703-1740), opposite the Winter Palace; but the fortress is now a state prison. A cathedral which stands within its walls is the burial-place of the emperors and the imperial family. The mint and an artillery museum are also situated within the fortress. The remainder of the island is meanly built, and is the refuge of the poorer officials (chinovniks) and of the intellectual proletariat. Its northern part, separated from the main island by a narrow channel, bears the name of Apothecaries' Island, and is occupied by a botanical garden of great scientific value and several fine private gardens and parks. Krestovskiy, Elagin and Kamennyi Islands, as also the opposite (right) bank of the Great Nevka (one of the branches of the Neva) are occupied by public gardens, parks and summer residences. The mainland on the right bank of the Neva above its delta is known as the Viborg Side, and is connected with the main city by the Liteinyi bridge, closely adjoining which are the buildings of the military academy of medicine and spacious hospitals. The small streets (many of them unpaved), with numerous wooden houses, are inhabited by students and workmen; farther north are great textile and iron factories. Vast orchards and the yards of the artillery laboratory stretch north-eastwards, while the railway and the high road to Finland, running north, lead to the park of the Forestry Institute. The two villages of Okhta, on the right bank, are suburbs; higher up, on the left bank, are several factories (Alexandrovsk) which formerly belonged to the crown. The true boundary of St Petersburg on the south is the Obvodnyi Canal, running parallel to the three canals already mentioned and forming a sort of base to the Neva peninsula; but numerous orchards, cemeteries and factories, and even unoccupied spaces, are included within the city boundaries in that direction, though they are being rapidly covered with buildings. Except in a few principal streets, which are paved with wood or asphalt, the pavement is usually of granite setts. There are two government dockyards, the most important of which is the new admiralty yard in the centre of the city. At this yard there are three building slips and a large experimental basin, some 400 ft. in length, for trials with models of vessels. The Galerny Island yard is a little lower down the river, and is devoted entirely to construction. There are two building slips for large vessels, besides numerous workshops, storehouses and so forth. The Baltic Yard is near the mouth of the Neva, and was taken over by the ministry of marine in 1894. Since that time the establish- ment has been enlarged, and a new stone building slip, 520 ft. in length, completely housed in, has been finished. Population. — The population of St Petersburg proper at the censuses specified was as follows: — Year. Total. Men. Women. Proportion of Men to every 100 Women. 1869 1881 1890 1897 667,207 861,303 954,400 1,132,677 377.38o 473-229 512,718 616,855 289,827 388,074 441,682 515.822 130 122 116 119 A further increase was revealed by the municipal census of 1900, when the population of the city was 1,248,739, having thus increased 30-9% in ten years. In 1905 the total population was estimated to number 1,429,000. The population of the suburbs was 134,710 in 1897, and 190,635 in 1900. Including its suburbs, St Petersburg is the fifth city of Europe in point of size, coming after London, Paris, Berlin and Vienna. The large proportion of men in its population is due to the fact that great numbers come from other parts of Russia to work during the winter in the textile factories, and during the summer at un- loading the boats. Russians numbered 828, 354 in 1897, or 73-1% of the population; Germans 43,798, or 3-9%; Poles 22,307, or 1-9%; Finns, 16,731, or 1.5%; and Jews 10,353, or 0-9%. The various religions are represented by 84-9% Orthodox Greeks, 9-9 Protestants, and 3-3 Roman Catholics. The pro- portion of illegitimate children is ten times higher than in the rest of Russia, namely 250 to 286 per thousand births. It is thus nearly the same as in Paris, but lower than in Moscow (292 per thousand) and Vienna (349 per thousand). The mortality varies very much in different parts of the city — from 12 per thousand in the best situated, the admiralty quarter, to 16 in other central parts, and 25 and 27 in the outlying quarters. The mortality has, however, notably decreased, as it averaged 36 per thousand in the years 1870 to 1874, and only 27 from 1886 to 1895, and 24 in 1897. Infectious diseases, i.e. turberculosis, diphtheria, inflammation of the lungs, typhoid, scarlet fever and measles, are the cause of 37 to 38% of all deaths. The high mortality in certain quarters is largely due to overcrowding and bad water. An interesting feature of the Russian capital is the very high proportion of people living on their own earnings or income (" independent ") as compared with those who live on the earnings or income of some one else (" dependent "). Only a few industrial establishments employ more than twenty workmen, the average being less than ten and the figure seldom falling below five. The large factories are beyond the limits of St Petersburg. Although 36 % of the population above six years old are unable to read, the workmen are amongst the most intelligent classes in Russia. Education, Science and Art. — Notwithstanding the hardships and prosecutions to which it is periodically subjected, the university (nearly 4000 students) exercises a pronounced influence en the life of St Petersburg. The medical faculty forms a separate academy, under military jurisdiction, with about 1500 students. There are, moreover, a philological institute, a technological institute, a forestry academy, an engineering academy, two theological academies (Orthodox Greek and Roman Catholic), an academy of arts, five military academies and a high school of law. Higher instruction for women is provided by a medical academy, a free university, four other institutions for higher education, and a school of agriculture. The scientific institutions include an academy of sciences, opened in 1726, which has rendered 'immense service in the exploration of Russia. The oft-repeated reproach that it keeps its doors shut to Russian savants, while opening them too widely to German ones, is not without foundation. The Pulkovo astronomical observatory, the chief physical (meteorological) observatory (with branches throughout Russia and Siberia), the astronomical observatory at Vilna, the astronomical and magnetical observatory at Peking, and the botanical garden, are all attached to the academy of sciences. The Society of Naturalists and the Physical and Chemical Society have issued most valuable publications. The geological committee is ably pushing forward the geological survey of the country; the Mineralogical Society was founded in 1817. The Geographical Society, with branch societies for West and East Siberia, Caucasus, Orenburg, the north-western and south-western provinces of European Russia, is well known for its valuable work, as is also the Entomological Society. There are four medical societies, and an archaeological society (since 1846), an historical society, an economical society, gardening, forestry, technical and navigation societies. The conservatory of music, with a new building (1891-1896), gives superior musical instruction. The Musical Society is worthy of notice. Art, on the other hand, has not freed itself from the old scholastic methods at the academy. Several independent artistic societies seek to remedy this drawback, and are the true cradle of the Russian genre painters. The imperial public library contains valuable collections of books (1,000,000) and MSS. The library of the academy of sciences con- tains more than 500,000 volumes, 13,000 MSS., rich collections of works on oriental languages, and valuable collections of periodical publications from scientific societies throughout the world. The museums of the Russian capital occupy a prominent place among those of Europe. That of the Academy of Sciences, of the Navy, of Industrial Art (1896), of the Mineralogical Society, of the Academy of Arts, the Asiatic museum, the Suvorov museum (1901), with pictures by Vereshchagin, the Zoological museum and several others are of great scientific value. The Hermitage Art Gallery contains a first-rate collection of the Flemish school, some pictures of the Russian school, good specimens of the Italian, Spanish and old French schools, invaluable treasures of Greek and Scythian antiquities, and a good collection of 200,000 engravings. Old Christian and old Russian arts are well represented in the museums of the Academy of Arts. The New Michael Palace was in 1895-1898 40 converted into a museum of Russian art — the Russian museum; it is one of the handsomest buildings in the city. In the development of the Russian drama St Petersburg has played a far less important part than Moscow, and the stage there has never reached the same standard of excellence as that of the older capital. On the other hand, St Petersburg is the cradle of Russian opera and Russian music. There are in the city only four theatres of import- ance— all imperial — two for the opera and ballet, one for the native drama, and one for the French and German drama. • Industries and -Trade. — St Petersburg is much less of a manufactur- ing city than Moscow or Berlin. The period 1880 to 1890 was very critical in the history of the northern capital. With the develop- ment of the railway system the southern and south-western provinces of Russia began to prosper more rapidly than the upper Volga provinces; St Petersburg began to lose its relative importance in Favour of the Baltic ports of Riga and Libau, and its rapid growth since the Crimean War seemed in danger of being arrested. The danger, however, passed away, and in the last decade of the igth century the city continued its advance with renewed vigour. A great influx of functionaries of all sorts, consequent upon the state taking into its hands the administration of the railways, spirits, &c., resulted in the rapid growth of the population, while the introduction of a cheap railway tariff, and the subsidizing and encouraging in other ways of the great industries, attracted to St Petersburg a considerable number of workers, and favoured the growth of its larger industrial establishments. St Petersburg is now one of the foremost industrial provinces in Russia, its yearly returns placing it immediately after Moscow and before Piotrkow, in Poland. The chief factories are cottons and other textiles, metal and machinery works, tobacco, paper, soap and candle factories, breweries, dis- tilleries, sugar refineries, ship-building yards, printing works, potteries, carriage works, pastry and confectionery and chemicals. The export trade of St Petersburg is chiefly in gram (especially rye and oats), flour and bran, oil seeds, oil cakes, naphtha, eggs, flax and timber. It shows very great fluctuations, varying in accordance with the ciops, the range being from £8,000,000 to £10,000,000. The exports are almost entirely to western Europe by sea (from £5,500,000 to £6,500,o»>o), and to Finland (£1,500,000 to £3,000,000). The im- ports consul chiefly of coal, metals, building materials, herrings, coffee and tea, better-class timber, raw cotton, wood pulp and cellulose, am' manufactured goods, and amount to about £14,000,000 annually. Six railways meet at St Petersburg. Two run westwards along both shores o the Gulf of Finland to Hangoudd and to Port Baltic respectively; two short lines connect Oranienbaum, opposite Kronstadt and Tsarskoye Selo (with Pavlovsk) with the capital; and three great trunk lines run — south-west to Warsaw (with branches to Riga and Smolensk), south-east to Moscow (with branches to Novgorod and Rybinsk), aud east to Vologda, Vyatka and Perm. The Neva is the principal channel for the trade of St Petersburg with the rest of Russia, by means of the Volga and its tributaries. Administration. — The municipal affairs of the city are in the hands of a municipality, elected by three categories of electors, and is practically a department of the chief of the police. The city is under a separate governor-general, whose authority, like that of the chief of police, is unlimited. Environs. — St Petersburg is surrounded by several fine residences, mostly imperial palaces with large and beautiful parks. Tsarskoye Selo, 15 m. to the south-east, and Peterhof, on the Gulf of Finland, are summer residences of the emperor. Pavlovsk, 17 m. S. of the city, has a fine palace and parks, where summer concerts attract thousands of people. There is another imperial palace at Gatchina, 29 m. S. Oranienbaum, 25 m. W. on the south shore of the Gulf of Finland, is a rather neglected place. Pulkovo, on a hill 9 m. S. from St Petersburg, is well known for its observatory; while several villages north of the capital, such as Pargplovo and Murino, are visited in summer by the less wealthy inhabitants. History. — The region between Lake Ladoga and the Gulf of Finland was inhabited in the pth century by Finns and some Slavs. Novgorod and Pskov made efforts to secure and maintain dominion over this region, so important for their trade, and in the i3th and i4th centuries they built the forts of Koporya (in the present district of Peterhof), Yam (now Yamburg), and Oryeshek (now Schliisselburg) at the point where the Neva issues from Lake Ladoga. They found, however, powerful opponents in the Swedes, who erected the fort of Landskrona at the junction of the Okhta and the Neva, and in the Livonians, who had their fortress at Narva. Novgorod and Moscow successively were able by continuous fighting to maintain their supremacy over the region south of the Neva throughout the i6th century; but early in the iyth century Moscow was com- pelled to cede it to Sweden, which erected a fortress on the Neva at the mouth of the Okhta. In 1700 Peter the Great began his wars with Sweden. Oryeshek was taken in 1702, and in the SAINT-PIERRE, ABBE DE following year the Swedish fortress on the Neva. Two months later (291)1 June 1703) Peter laid the foundations of a cathedral to St Peter and St Paul, and of a fort which received his own name (in its Dutch transcription, " Piterburgh" ). Next year the fort of Kronslott was erected on the island of Kotlin, as also the Admiralty on the Neva, opposite the fortress. The emperor took most severe and almost barbarous measures for increasing his newly founded city, which was built on marshy ground, the buildings resting on piles. Thousands of people from all parts of Russia were removed thither and died in erecting the fortress and building the houses. Under Elizabeth fresh compulsory measures raised the population to 150,000, and this figure was nearly doubled during the reign of Catherine II. (1762-1796). The chief embellishments of St Petersburg were effected during the reigns of Alexander I. (1801-1825) and Nicholas I. (1825- 1855). From the earliest years of Russian history trade had taken this northern direction. Novgorod owed its wealth to this fact; and as far back as the i2th century the Russians had their forts on Lake Ladoga and the Neva. In the i4th and isth centuries they exchanged their wares with the Danzig merchants at Nu or Nil — now Vasilyevskiy Island. By founding St Petersburg Peter the Great only restored the trade to its old channels. The system of canals for connecting the upper Volga and the Dnieper with the great lakes of the north completed the work; the commercial mouth of the Volga was thus transferred to the Gulf of Finland, and St Petersburg became the export harbour for more than half Russia. Foreigners hastened thither to take possession of the growing export trade, and to this the Russian capital is indebted for its cosmopolitan character. The develop- ment of the railway system and the colonization of southern Russia now operate, however, adversely to St Petersburg, while the rapid increase of population in the Black Sea region is tending to shift the Russian centre of gravity; new centres of commercial, industrial, and intellectual life are being developed at Odessa and Rostov. The revival of Little Russia is another influence operating in the same direction. Since the abolition of serfdom and in consequence of the impulse given to Russian thought by this reform, the provinces are coming more and more to dispute the right of St Petersburg to guide the political life of the country. It has been often said that St Petersburg is the head of Russia and Moscow its heart. The first part at least of this saying is true. In the development of thought and in naturalizing in Russia the results of west European culture and philosophy St Petersburg has played a prominent part. It has helped greatly to familiarize the public with the teachings of west European science and thinking, and to give to Russian literature its liberality of mind and freedom from the trammels of tradition. St Petersburg has no traditions, no history beyond that of the palace conspiracies, and there is nothing in its past to attract the writer or the thinker. But, as new centres of intellectual life and new currents of thought develop again at Moscow and Kiev, or arise anew at Odessa and in the eastern provinces, these places claim the right to their own share in the further development of intellectual life in Russia. (P. A. K., J. T. BE.) SAINT-PIERRE, CHARLES IR^N^E CASTEL, (Anm'. I.K (1658-1743), French writer, was born at the chateau de Saint- Pierre-l'Eglise near Cherbourg on the i8th of February 1658. His father was bailli of the Cotentin, and Saint-Pierre was educated by the Jesuits. In Paris he frequented the salons of Madame de la Fayette and of the marquise de Lambert. He was presented to the abbacy of Tiron, and was elected to the Academy in 1695. In the same year he gained a footing at court as almoner to Madame. But in 1718, in consequence of the political offence given by his Discours sur la polysynodie, he was expelled from the Academy. He afterwards founded the club of the Entre sol, an independent society suppressed in 1731. He died in Paris on the 2gth of April 1743. Saint-Pierre's works are almost entirely occupied with an acute though generally visionary criticism of politics, law and social institutions. They had a great influence on Rousseau, who left elaborate examinations of some of them, and reproduced SAINT-PIERRE, J. H. B. DE— ST POL-DE-LEON not a few of their ideas in his own work. His Projel de paix perpetuelle, which was destined to exercise considerable influence on the development of the various schemes for securing universal peace which culminated in the Holy Alliance, was published in 1713 at Utrecht, where he was acting as secretary to the French plenipotentiary, the Abb6 de Polignac, and his Polysynodie contained severe strictures on the government of Louis XIV., with projects for the administration of France by a system of councils for each department of government. His works include a number of memorials and projects for stopping duelling, equalizing taxation, treating mendicancy, reforming education and spelling, &c. It was not, however, for his suggestions for the reform of the constitution that he was disgraced, but because in the Polysynodie he had refused to Louis XIV. the title of le Grand. Unlike the later reforming abbes of the philosophe period, Saint-Pierre was a man of very unworldly character and quite destitute of the Frondeur spirit. His works were published at Amsterdam in 1738-1740 and his Annales politiques in London in 1757. A discussion of his principles, with a view to securing a just estimation of the high value of his political and economic ideas, is given by S. Siegler Pascal in Un Contemporain egare au X VIII' siecle. Les Projets de I' abbe de Saint- Pierre, 1658-1743 (Paris, 1900). SAINT-PIERRE, JACQUES HENRI BERNARDIN DE (1737- 1814), French man of letters, was born at Havre on the igth of January 1737. He was educated at Caen and at Rouen, and became an engineer. According to his own account he served in the army, taking part in the Hesse campaign of 1760, but was dismissed for insubordination, and, after quarrelling with his family, was in some difficulty. He appears at Malta,. St Petersburg, Warsaw, Dresden, Berlin, holding brief commissions as an engineer and rejoicing in romantic adventures. But he came back to Paris in 1765 poorer than he set out. He came into possession of a small sum at his father's death, and in 1 768 he set out for the Isle of France (Mauritius) with a government commission, and remained there three years, returning home in 1771. These wanderings supplied Bernardin with the whole of his stock-in-trade, for he never again quitted France. On his return from Mauritius he was introduced to D'Alembert and his friends, but he took no great pleasure in the company of any literary man except J. J. Rousseau, of whom in his last years he saw much, and on whom he formed both his character and his style. His Voyage a Vile de France, (2 vols., 1773) gained him a reputation as a champion of innocence and religion, and in consequence, through the exertions of the bishop of Aix, a pension of 1000 livres a year. It is soberest and therefore the least characteristic of his books. The £tudes ince 1089 only because it was a united force in the midst ot disintegration. Gradually, however, Christian enthusiasm had aroused a counter enthusiasm among the Moslems. Zengi, atabeg of Mosul, had inaugurated the sacred war by his campaigns in Syria (1137-1146). Nur-ed-din, his son, had continued his work by further conquests in Syria and Damascus, by the organization of his conquered lands, and, in 1157, by " publishing everywhere the Holy War." The opportunity of Saladin lay therefore in the fact that his lifetime covers the period when there was a conscious demand for political union in the defence of the Mahommedan faith. By race Saladin was a Kurd of Armenia. His father, Ayyub (Job), and his uncle Shirkuh, sons of a certain Shadhy of Ajdanakan near Dawin, were both generals in Zengi's army. In 1139 Ayyub received Baalbek from Zengi, in 1146 he moved, on Zengi's death, to the court of Damascus. In 1154 his influence secured Damascus to Nur-ed-din and he was made governor. Saladin was therefore educated in the most famous centre of Moslem learning, and represented the best traditions of Moslem culture. His career falls into three parts, his conquests in Egypt 1164- 1174, the annexation of Syria 1174-1187, and lastly the destruc- tion of the Latin kingdom and subsequent campaigns against the Christians, 1187-1192. The conquest of Egypt was essential to Nur-ed-din. It was a menace to his empire on the south, the occasional ally of the Franks and the home of the unorthodox caliphs. His pretext was the plea of an exiled vizier, and Shirkuh was ordered to Egypt in 1164, taking Saladin as his lieutenant. The Christians under Count Amalric immediately intervened and the four expeditions which ensued in 1164, 1167, 1168 and 1169 were duels between Christians and Saracens. They resulted in heavy Christian losses, the death of Shirkuh and the appointment of Saladin as vizir. His relations towards the unorthodox caliph Nur-ed-din were marked by extraordinary tact. In 1171 on the death of the Fatimite caliph he was powerful enough to substitute the name of the orthodox caliph in all Egyptian mosques. The Mahommedan religion was thus united against Christianity. To Nur-ed-din he was invari- ably submissive, but from the vigour which he employed in adding to the fortifications of Cairo and the haste with which he retreated from an attack on Montreal (1171) and Kerak (1173) it is clear that he feared his lord's jealousy. In 1174 Nur-ed-din died, and the period of Saladin's conquests in Syria begins. Nur-ed-din's vassals rebelled against his youthful heir, es-Salih, and Saladin came north, nominally to his assistance. In 1174 he entered Damascus, Emesa and Hamah; in 1175 Baalbek and the towns round Aleppo. The next step was political independence. He suppressed the name of es-Salih in prayers and on the coinage, and was formally declared sultan by the caliph 1175. In 1176 he conquered Saif-ud-din of Mosul beyond the Euphrates and was recognized as sovereign by the princes of northern Syria. In 1177 he returned by Damascus to Cairo, which he enriched with colleges, a citadel and an aqueduct. From 1177 to 1180 he made war on the Christians from Egypt, and in 1180 reduced the sultan of Konia to sub- mission. From 1181-1183 he was chiefly occupied in Syria. ID 1183 he induced the atabeg Imad-ud-din to exchange Aleppo for the insignificant Sinjar and in 1186 received the homage of the atabeg of Mosul. The last independent vassal was thus subdued and the Latin kingdom enclosed on every side by a hostile empire. In 1187 a four years' truce was broken by the brilliant brigand Renaud de Chatillon and thus began Saladin's third period of conquest. In May he cut to pieces a small body of Templars and Hospitallers at Tiberias, and, on July 4th, inflicted a crushing defeat upon the united Christian army at Hittin. He then overran Palestine, on September 2oth besieged Jerusalem and on October 2nd, after chivalrous clemency to the Christian inhabitants, crowned his victories by entering and purifying the Holy City. In the kingdom only Tyre was left to the Christians. Probably Saladin made his worst strategical error in neglect- ing to conquer it before winter. The Christians, had thus a stronghold whence their remnant marched to attack Acre in June 1189. Saladin immediately surrounded the Christian army and thus began the famous two years' siege. Saladin's lack of a fleet enabled the Christians to receive reinforcements and thus recover from their defeats by land. On the 8th of June 1191 Richard of England arrived, and on the 1 2th of July Acre capitulated without Saladin's permission. Richard followed up his victory by an admirably ordered march down the coast to Jaffa and a great victory at Arsuf. During 1191 and 1192 there were four small campaigns in southern Palestine when Richard circled round Beitnuba and Ascalon with Jerusalem as objective. In January 1192 he acknowledged his impotence by renouncing Jerusalem to fortify Ascalon. Negotiations for peace accompanied these demonstrations, which showed that Saladin was master of the situation. Though in July Richard secured two brilliant victories at Jaffa, the treaty made on the 2nd of September was a triumph for Saladin. Only the coast line was left to the Latin kingdom, with a free passage to Jerusalem; and Ascalon was demolished. The union of the Mahommedan East had beyond question dealt the death-blow to the Latin kingdom. Richard returned to Europe, and Saladin returned to Damascus, where on the 4th of March 1193, ,SALAMANCA after a few days' illness, he died. He was buried in Damascus and mourned by the whole East. The character of Saladin and of his work is singularly vivid. In many ways he was a typical Mahommedan, fiercely hostile _towards unbelievers — " Let us purge the air of the air they breathe " was his aim for the demons of the Cross, — intensely devout and regular in prayers and fasting. He showed the pride of race in the declaration that " God reserved this triumph for the Ayyubites before all others." His generosity and Hospitality were proved in his gifts^to Richard and his treatment of captives. He had the Oriental's power of endurance, alternating with violent and emotional courage. Other virtues were all his own, his extreme gentleness, his love for children, his flawless honesty, his invariable kindliness, his chivalry to women and the weak. Above all he typifies the Mahommedan's utter self- surrender to a sacred cause. His achievements were the inevitable expression of his character. He was not a statesman, for he left no constitution or code to the East ; his empire was divided among his relatives on his death. As a strategist, though of great ability, he cannot be compared to Richard. As a general, he never organized an army. " My troops will do nothing," he confessed, " save when I ride at their head and review them. His fame lives in Eastern history as the conqueror who stemmed the tide of Western conquest on the East, and turned it definitely from East to West, as the hero who momentarily united the unruly East, and as the saint who realized in his personality the highest virtues and ideals of Mahommedanism. AUTHORITIES. — The contemporary Arabian authorities are to be found in Michaud's Recited des historiens des Croisades (Paris. 1876). This contains the work of Baha-ud-din (1145-1234), diplomatist, and secretary of Saladin, the general history of Ibn-Athir (1160- 1233), the eulogist of the atabegs of Mosul but the unwilling admirer of Saladin, and parts of the general history of Abulfeda. The biography of the poet Osema ibn Murkidh (1095-1188), edited by Derenbourg (Paris, 1886), gives an invaluable picture of Eastern life. Later Arabian authorities are Ibn Khallikan (1211-1282) and Abu- Shama (born 1267). Of Christian authorities the following are important, the history of William of Tyre (1137-1185), the Iliner- anum peregrinorum, probably the Latin version of the Carmen Ambrosii (ed. by Stubbs, " Rolls " series, London, 1864), and the Chronique d'outremer, or the French translation of William of Tyre's history and its continuation by Ernoul, the squire of Balian, seigneur of I be Jin, 1228. The best modern authority is Stanley Lane-Poole's Saladin (" Heroes of the Nations " series, London, 1903). See also the bibliography to CRUSADES. (W. F. K.) SALAMANCA, a frontier province of eastern Spain, formed in 1833 out of the southern part of the ancient kingdom of Leon, and bounded on the N. by Zamora and Valladolid, E. by Avila, S. by Caceres and W. by Portugal. Pop. (1900) 320,765; area, 4829 sq. m. Salamanca belongs almost entirely to the basin of the Duero (Portuguese Douro, P- 6l2)- Sal ammoniac (ammonium chloride, British and United States pharmacopoeiae) as used in medicine is a white crystalline odourless powder having a saline taste. It is soluble in I in 3 of cold water and in I in 50 of 90% alcohol. It is incompatible with carbonates of the alkalis. The dose is 5 to 20 grs. Ammonium chloride has a different action and therapeutic use from the rest of the ammonium salts. It possesses only slight influence over the heart and respiration, but it has a specific effect on mucous membranes as the elimination of the drug takes place largely through the lungs, where it aids in loosening bronchial secretions. This action renders it of the utmost value in bronchitis and pneumonia with associated bronchitis. The drug may be given in a mixture with glycerine or liquorice to cover the disagreeable taste or it may be used in a spray by means of an atomizer. The inhalation of the fumes of nascent ammonium chloride by filling the room with the gas has been recommended in foetid bronchitis. Though ammonium chloride has certain irritant properties which may disorder the stomach, yet if its mucous mem- brane be depressed and atonic the drug may improve its condition, and it has been used with success in gastric and intestinal catarrhs of a subacute type and is given in doses of 10 grains half an hour before meals in painful dyspepsia due to hyperacidity. It is also an intestinal and hepatic stimulant and a feeble diuretic and dia- phoretic, and has been considered a specific in some forms of neuralgia. SALARIA, VIA, an ancient highroad of Italy, which ran from Rome by Reate and Asculum to Castrum Truentinum (Porto d'Ascoli) on the Adriatic coast, a distance of 151 m. Its first portion must be of early origin, and was the route by which the Sabines came to fetch salt from the marshes at the mouth of the Tiber. Gi its course through the Apennines considerable remains exist. 6o SALAR JUNG, SIR— SALE, G. See T. Ashby in Papers of the British School at Rome, iii. 3-38; N. Persichetti, Viaggio archeologico sulla Via Solaria nel Circondario di Cittaducale (Rome, 1893); and in Romische Mitteilungen (1903), 276 seq. SALAR JUNG, SIR (1829-1883), Indian statesman of Hyderabad, born in 1829, descendant of a family which had held various appointments, first under the Adil Shahi kings of Bijapur, then under the Delhi emperors and lastly under the Nizams. While he was known to the British as Sir Salar Jung, his personal name was Mir Turab Ali, he was styled by native officials of Hyderabad the Mukhtaru '1-Mulk, and was referred to by the general public as the Nawab Sahib. He succeeded his uncle Suraju '1-Mulk as prime minister in 1853. The condition of the Hyderabad state was at that time a scandal to the rest of India. Salar Jung began by infusing a measure of discipline into the Arab mercenaries, the more valuable part of the Nizam's army, and employing them against the rapacious nobles and bands of robbers who had annihilated the trade of the country. He then constituted courts of justice at Hyderabad, organized the police force, constructed and repaired irrigation works, and established schools. On the outbreak of the Mutiny he supported the British, and although unable to hinder an attack on the residency, he warned the British minister that it was in comtemplation. The attack was repulsed; the Hyderabad contingent remained loyal, and their loyalty served to ensure the tranquillity of the Deccan. Salar Jung took advantage of the preoccupation of the British government with the Mutiny to push his reforms more boldly, and when the Calcutta authorities were again at liberty to consider the condition of affairs his work had been carried far towards completion. During the lifetime of the Nizam Afzulu'd-dowla, Salar Jung was considerably hampered by his master's jealous supervision. When Mir Mahbub Ali, however, succeeded his father in 1869, Salar Jung, at the instance of the British govern- ment, was associated in the regency with the principal noble of the state, the Shamsu '1-Umara or Amir Kabir, and enjoyed an increased authority. In 1876 he visited England with the object of obtaining the restoration of Berar. Although he was un- successful, his personal merits met with full recognition. He died of cholera at Hyderabad on the 8th of February 1883. He was created G. C.S.I, on the 28th of May 1870, and received the honorary degree of D.C.L. from the University of Oxford on the zist of June 1876. His grandson enjoyed an estate of 1486 sq. m., yielding an income of nearly £60,000. See Memoirs of Sir Salar Jung, by his private secretary, Syed Hossain Bilgrami, 1883. SALARY, a payment for services rendered, usually a stipulated sum paid monthly, quarterly, half-yearly or yearly, and for a permanent or lengthy term of employment. It is generally contrasted with " wages," a term applied to weekly or daily payment for manual services. As laid down by Bowen, L. J., In re Shine (1892)) i Q.B. 529, " Salary means a definite payment for personal services under some contract and computed by time." The Latin solarium meant originally salt money (Lat. sal, salt), i.e. the sum paid to soldiers for salt. In post-Augustan Latin the word was applied to any allowance, pension or stipend. SALAS, or SAN MARTIN DE SALAS, a town of southern Spain, in the province of Oviedo; on the road from Tineo to Grado, and on a small sub-tributary of the river Narcea. Pop. (1900), 17,147. The official total of the inhabitants includes not only the actual residents in the town, but also the population of the district of Salas, a mountainous region in which coal-mining and agriculture are the principal industries. The products of this region are sent for export to Cudillero, a small harbour on the Bay of Biscay. SALAS BARBADILLO, ALONSO JER6NIMO DE (c. 1580- 1635), Spanish novelist and playwright, born at Madrid about 1580, and educated at Alcala de Henares and Valladolid. His first work, La Patrona de Madrid reslituida (1609), is a dull devout poem, which forms a strange prelude to La Hija de Celestina (1612), a malicious transcription of picaresque scenes reprinted under the title of La Ingeniosa Elena. This was followed by a series of similar tales and plays, the best of which are El Cavallero puntual (1614), La Casa de placer honesto (1620), Don Diego de Noche (1623) and a most sparkling satirical volume of character-sketches, El Curioso y Sabio Alexandra (1634). He died in poverty at Madrid on the zoth of July 1635. Some of his works were translated into English and French, and Scarron's Hypocrites is based on La Ingeniosa Elena; he deserved the vogue which he enjoyed till late in the I7th century, for his satirical humour, versatile invention and pointed style are an effective combination. SALDANHA BAY, an inlet on the south-western coast of South Africa, 63 m. by sea N. by W. of Cape Town, forming a land-locked harbour. The northern part of the inlet is known as Hoetjes Bay. It has accommodation for a large fleet with deep water close inshore, but the arid nature of the country caused it to be neglected by the early navigators, and with the growth of Cape Town Saldanha Bay was rarely visited. Considerable deposits of freestone in the neighbourhood attracted attention during the later igth century. Proposals were also made to create a port which could be supplied by water from the Berg river, 20 m. distant. From Kalabas Kraal on the Cape Town- Clanwilliam railway, a narrow gauge line runs via Hopefield to Hoetjes Bay — 126 m. from Cape Town. Saldanha Bay is so named after Antonio de Saldanha, captain of a vessel in Albuquerque's fleet which visited South Africa in 1503. The name was first given to Table Bay, where Saldanha's ship cast anchor. On Table Bay being given its present name (1601) the older appellation was transferred to the bay now called after Saldanha. In 1781 a British squadron under Commodore George Johnstone I73I~I?87) seized six Dutch East Indiamen, which, fearing an attack on Cape Town, had taken refuge in Saldanha Bay. This was the only achievement, so far as South Africa was concerned, of the expedition despatched to seize Cape Town during the war of 1781- 1783- SALDERN, FRIEDRICH CHRISTOPH VON (1719-1785), Prussian soldier and military writer, entered the army in 1735, and (on account of his great stature) was transferred to the Guards in 1739. As one of Frederick's aides-de-camp he was the first to discover the approach of Neipperg's Austrians at Mollwitz. He commanded a guard battalion at Leuthen, again distinguished himself at Hochkirch and was promoted major- general. In 1760 at Liegnitz Frederick gave him four hours in which to collect, arrange and despatch the spoils of the battle, 6000 prisoners, 100 wagons, 82 guns and 5000 muskets. His complete success made him a marked man even in Frederick's army. At Torgau, Saldern and Mollendorf (q.v.) with their brigades converted a lost battle into a great victory by their desperate assault on the Siptitz Heights. The manoeuvring skill, as well as the iron resolution, of the attack, has excited the wonder of modern critics, and after Torgau Saldern was accounted the " completest general of infantry alive " (Carlyle). In the following winter, however, being ordered by Frederick to sack Hubertusburg, Saldern refused on the ground of conscience. Nothing was left for him but to retire, but Frederick was well aware that he needed Saldern's experience and organizing ability, and after the peace the general was at once made inspector of the troops at Magdeburg. In 1766 he became lieutenant- general. The remainder of his life was spent in the study of military sciences in which he became a pedant of the most pronounced type. In one of his works he discussed at great length the question between 76 and 75 paces to the minute as the proper cadence of infantry. There can be no question that " Saldern-tactics " were the most extreme form of pedantry to which troops were ever subjected, and contributed powerfully to the disaster of Jena in 1806. His works included Taklik der Infanlerie (Dresden, 1784) and Taklische Grundsdlze (Dresden, 1786), and were the basis of the British " Dundas " drill-book. See Ktister, Charakterzuge des Generalleutenants von Saldern (Berlin, 1792). SALE, GEORGE (c. 1697-1736), English orientalist, was the son of a London merchant. In 1720 he was admitted a student of the Inner Temple, but subsequently practised as a solicitor. Having studied Arabic for some time in England, he became, in 1726, one of the correctors of the Arabic version of the New Testament, begun in 1720 by the Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge, and subsequently took the principal part in the SALE, SIR R. H.— SALEM 61 work. He made an extremely paraphrastic, but, for his time, admirable English translation of the Koran (1734 and often reprinted), and had a European reputation as an orientalist. He died on the i3th of November 1736. His collection of oriental manuscripts is now in the Bodleian library, Oxford. SALE, SIR ROBERT HENRY (1782-1845), British soldier, entered the 36th Foot in 1795, and went to India in 1798, as a lieutenant of the i2th Foot. His regiment formed part of Baird's brigade of Harris's army operating against Tippoo Sahib, and Sale was present at Mallavelly (Mallawalli) and Seringapatam, subsequently serving under Colonel Arthur Wellesley in the campaign against Dhundia. A little later the 1 2th was employed in the difficult and laborious attack on Paichi Raja. Promoted captain in 1806, Sale was engaged in 1808-1809 against the Raja of Travancore, and was at the two actions of Quilon, the storm of Travancore lines and the battle of Killianore. In 1810 he accompanied the expedition to Mauritius, and in 1813 obtained his majority. After some years he became major in the i3th, with which regiment he was for the rest of his life associated. In the Burmese War he led the i3th in all the actions up to the capture of Rangoon, in one of which he killed the enemy's leader in single combat. In the concluding operations of the war, being now lieutenant-colonel, he commanded a brigade, and at Malown (1826) he was severely wounded. For these services he received the C.B. In 1838, on the outbreak of the Afghan War, Brevet-Colonel Sale was assigned to the command of the ist Bengal brigade of the army assembling on the Indus. His column arrived at Kandahar in April 1839, and in May it occupied the Herat plain. The Kandahar force next set out on its march to Kabul, and a month later Ghazni was stormed, Sale in person leading the storming column and distinguishing himself in single combat. The place was well provisioned, and on its supplies the army finished its march to Kabul easily. For his services Sale was made K.C.B. and received the local rank of major-general, as well as the Shah's order of the Duranee Empire. He was left, as second-in-command, with the army of occupation, and in the interval between the two wars conducted several small campaigns ending with the action of Parwan which led directly to the surrender of Dost Mahommed. By this time the army had settled down to the quiet life of canton- ments, and Lady Sale and her daughter came to Kabul. But the policy of the Indian government in stopping the subsidy to the frontier tribes roused them into hostility, and Sale's brigade received orders to clear the line of communication to Peshawar. After severe fighting Sale entered Jalalabad on the I2th of November 1841. Ten days previously he had received news of the murder of Sir Alexander Burnes, along with orders to return with all speed to Kabul. These orders he, for various reasons, decided to ignore; suppressing his personal desire to return to protect his wife and family, he gave orders to push on, and on occupying Jalalabad at once set about making the old and half- ruined fortress fit to stand a siege. There followed a close and severe investment rather than a siege, and the garrison's sorties were made usually with the object of obtaining supplies. At last Pollock and the relieving army appeared, only to find that the garrison had on the 7th of April 1842 relieved itself by a brilliant and completely successful attack on Akbar's lines. Sir Robert Sale received the G.C.B.; a medal was struck for all ranks of defenders, and salutes fired at every large canton- ment in India. Pollock and Sale after a time took the offensive, and after the victory of Haft Kotal, Sale's division encamped at Kabul again. At the end of the war Sale received the thanks of parliament. In 1845, as quartermaster-general to Sir H. Cough's army, Sale again took the field. At Moodkee (Mudki) he was mortally wounded, and he died on the 2ist of December 1845. His wife, who shared with him the dangers and hardships of the Afghan war, was amongst Akbar's captives. Amongst the few possessions she was able to keep from Afghan plunderers was her diary (Journal of the Disasters in Afghanistan, London, 1843)- See Gleig, Sale's Brigade in Afghanistan (London, 1846)- Kaye, Lives of Indian Officers(London, 1867) ; W. Sale, Defence of Jellalabad (London, 1846) ; Regimental History of the I3th Light Infantry. SALE, a town of Tanjil county, Victoria, Australia, the principal centre in the agricultural Gippsland district, on the river Thomson, \i~]\ m. by rail E.S.E. of Melbourne. Pop. (1901), 3462. It is the seat of the Anglican bishop of Gippsland, and contains the cathedral of the Roman Catholic bishop of Sale. Attached to its mechanics' institute are schools of mines, art and technology, and a fine free library. The finest buildings, excluding a number of handsome churches, are the Victoria Hall and the convent of Notre Dame de Sion. The Agricultural Society has excellent show grounds, in which meetings are annually held. Sale is the head of the Gippsland lakes naviga- tion, the shipping being brought from the lakes to the town by canal. Daily communication is maintained with Cunningham at the lakes' entrance, and ocean-going steamers ply frequently between Sale and Melbourne. SALE, an urban district in the Altrincham parliamentary division of Cheshire, England, 5 m. S.W. of Manchester. Pop. (1901), 12,088. It is served by the Manchester, South Junction & Altrincham and the London & North-Western railways, and the Cheshire Lines, and has become a large residential suburb of Manchester. At the beginning of the igth century the greater part of the township was still waste and unenclosed. There are numerous handsome villas. Market gardening is carried on in the neighbourhood; and there are large botanical gardens. SALEM, a city and district of British India, in the Madras presidency. The city is on both banks of the river Tirumani- muttar, 3 m. from a station on the Madras railway, 206 m. S.W. of Madras city. Pop. (1901), 70,621. There is a considerable weaving industry and some manufacture of cutlery. Its situa- tion in a green valley between the Shevaroy and Jarugumalai hills is picturesque. The DISTRICT OF SALEM has an area of 7530 sq. m. Except towards the south it is hilly, with extensive plains lying between the several ranges. It consists of three distinct tracts, formerly known as the Talaghat, the Baramahal and the Balaghat. The Talaghat is situated below the Eastern Ghats on the level of the Carnatic generally; the Baramahal includes the whole face of the Ghats and a wide piece of country at their base; and the Balaghat is situated above the Ghats on the tableland of Mysore. The western part of the district is mountainous. Amongst the chief ranges (5000-6000 ft.) are the Shevaroys, the Kalrayans, the Melagiris, the Kollimalais, the Pachamalais and the Yelagiris. The chief rivers are the Cauvery with its numerous tributaries, and the Ponniar and Palar; the last, however, only flows through a few miles of the north-western corner of the district. The forests are of considerable value. The geological structure of the district is mostly gneissic, with a few irruptive rocks in the form of trap dikes and granite veins. Magnetic iron ore is common in the hill regions, and corundum and chromate of iron are also obtainable. The qualities of the soil differ very much ; in the country immediately surrounding the town of Salem a thin layer of calcareous and red loam generally prevails, through which quartz rocks appear on the surface in many places. The climate, owing to the great difference of elevation, varies considerably ; on the hills it is cool and bracing, and for a great part of the year very salubrious; the annual rainfall averages about 32 in. The population in 1901 was 2,204,974, showing an increase of 12% in the decade. The principal crops are millets, rice, other food grains and oil-seeds, with a little cotton, indigo and tobacco. Coffee is grown on the Shevaroy hills. The chief irrigation work is the Barur tank system. Salem suffered severely from' the famine of 1877-1878. The Madras railway runs through the district, with two narrow-gauge branches. The chief industry is cotton-weaving, and there is some manufacture of steel from magnetic iron ore. There are many saltpetre refineries, but no large industries. The district was acquired partly by the treaty of peace with Tippoo Sultan in 1792 and partly by the partition treaty of Mysore in 1799. By the former the Talaghat and Baramahal were ceded, and by the latter the Balaghat or what is now the Hosur taluk. SALEM, a city and one of the county-seats (Lawrence is the other) of Essex county, Massachusetts, about 15 m. N.E. of Boston. Pop. (1900), 35,956, of whom 10,902 were foreign-born (including 4003 French Canadians, 3476 Irish, and r 585 English SALEM Canadians), 23,038 were of foreign parentage (one or the other parent foreign-born) and 156 were negroes; (1910), 43,697. Area, 8-2 sq. m. Salem is served by the Boston & Maine and by interurban electric railways westward to Peabody, Danvers and Lawrence, eastward to Beverly, and southward to Marblehead, Swampscott, Lynn and Boston. It occupies a peninsula projecting toward the north-east, a small island (Winter Island) connected with the neck of the peninsula (Salem Neck) by a causeway, and some land on the mainland. Salem has many historical and literary landmarks. There are three court-houses, one of granite (1830-1841) with great monolithic Corinthian pillars, another (1862), adjoining it, of brick, and a third (1908-1909) of granite, for the probate court. The City Hall was built in 1837, and enlarged in 1876. The Custom House (1818-1819) is described in the introduction to Hawthorne's Scarlet Letter, and in it Hawthorne worked as surveyor of the port in 1845-1849. The public library building (1888) was given to the city by the heirs of Captain John Bertram. The Essex Institute (1848) is housed in a brick building (1851) with freestone trimmings and in old Plummer Hall (1857); its museum contains some old furniture and a collection of portraits; it has an excellent library and publishes quarterly (1859 sqq.) Historical Collections. The Peabody Academy of Science, founded by the gift in 1867 of $140,000 from George Peabody and incorporated in 1868, is established in the East India Marine Hall (1824), bought for this purpose from the Salem East India Marine Society. The Marine Society was organized in 1799, its membership being limited to " persons who have actually navigated the seas beyond the Cape of Good Hope or Cape Horn, as masters or supercargoes of vessels belonging to Salem " ; it assists the widows and children of members. Its museum, like the ethnological and natural history collection of the Essex Institute, was bought by the Peabody Academy of Science, whose museum now includes Essex county collections (natural history, mineralogy, botany, prehistoric relics, &c.), type collections of minerals and fossils; implements, dress, &c. of primitive peoples, especially rich in objects from Malaysia, Japan and the South Seas ; and portraits and relics of famous Salem merchants, with models and pictures of Salem merchant vessels. The Salem Athenaeum (1810), the successor of a Social Library (1760) and a Philosophical Library (1781) is housed in Plummer Hall (1908), a building in the southern Colonial style, named in honour of a benefactor of the Athenaeum, Caroline Plummer (d. 1855), who endowed the Plummer Professorship of Christian Morals at Harvard. Some of the old houses were built by ship-owners before the Warof Independence, and more were built during the first years of the loth century when Salem privatetrsmen made so many fortunes. Many of the finest old houses are of the gambrel type ; and there are many beautiful doorways, doorheads and other details. Nathaniel Hawthorne's birthplace was built • before 1692; another house — now recon- structed and used as a social settlement — is pointed out as the original " house of seven gables." The Corwin or " Witch " house, so called from a tradition that Jonathan Corwin, one of the judges in the witchcraft trials, held preliminary examinations of witches here, is said to have been the property of Roger Williams. The Pickering house, built before 1660, was the homestead of Timothy Pickering and of other members of that family. Among the other buildings and institutions are Hamilton Hall (1805); the Franklin Building (1861) of the Salem Marine Society ; a large armoury ; a state normal school (1854); an orphan asylum (1870, under the Sisters of the Grey Nuns; the Association for the Relief of Aged and Destitute Women (1860), occupying a fine old brick house formerly the home of Benjamin W. Crowninshield (1772-1851), a member of the national House of Representatives in 1824-1831 and Secretary of the Navy in 1814; the Bertram Home for Aged Men (1877) in a house built in 1806-1807; the Plummer Farm School for Boys (incorporated 1855, opened 1870), another charity of Caroline Plummer, on Winter Island; the City Almshouse (1816) and the City Insane Asylum (1884) on Salem Neck; a home for girls (1876); the Fraternity (1869), a club-house for boys; the Marine Society Bethel and the Salem Seamen's Bethel; the Seamen's Orphan and Children's Friend Society (1839); an Associated Chanties (1901), and the Salem Hospital (1873). Among the _ Church organizations are: the First (Unitarian; originally Trinitarian Congregational), which dates from 1629 and was the first Congregational church organized in America ; the Second or East Church (Unitarian) organized in 1718; the North Church (Unitarian), which separated from the First in 1772; the Third or Tabernacle (Congregational), organized in 1735 from the First Church; the South (Congregational), which separated from the Third in 1774; several Baptist churches; a Quaker society, with a brick meeting-house (1832); St Peter's, the oldest Episcopalian church in Salem, with a building of English Gothic erected in l8«. and Grace Church (1858). Washington Square or the Common (8 acres) is in the centre of the city. The Willows is a 3O-acre park on the Neck shore, and in North Salem is Liberty Hill, another park. On a bluff projecting into South river is the old " Burying Point," set apart in 1637, and the oldest cemetery in the city ; its oldest stone is dated 1673 ; here are buried Governor Simon Bradstreet, Chief-Justice Benjamin Lynde (1666-1745) and Judge John Hathorne (1641-1717) of the witch- craft court. The Broad Street Burial Ground was-laid out in 1655. On Salem Neck is Fort Lee and on Winter Island is Fort Pickering (on the site of a fort built in 1643), near which is the Winter Island Lighthouse. The main trade of Salem is along the coast, principally in the transhipment of coal; and the historic Crowninshield's or India wharf is now a great coal pocket. The harbour is not deep enough for ocean-going vessels, and manufacturing is the most important industry. In 1905 the total value of the factory products was $12,202,217 (13-9 % more than in 1900), and the principal manu- factures were boots and shoes and leather. The largest single establishment is the Naumkeag Steam Cotton Company, which has 2800 looms and about 1500 mill-hands. Another large factory is that of the silversmiths, Daniel Low & Co. History. — Salem was settled in 1626 by Roger Conant (1593- 1679) and a company of " planters," who in 1624 (under the Sheffield patent of 1623 for a settlement on the north shore of Massachusetts Bay) had attempted a plantation at Cape Ann, whither John Lyford and others had previously come from Plymouth through " dissatisfaction with the extreme separation from the English church." Conant was not a separatist, and the Salem settlement was a commercial venture, partly agri- cultural and partly to provide a wintering place for Banks fishermen so that they might more quickly make their spring catch. Cape Ann was too bleak, but Naumkeag was a " pleasant and fruitful neck of land," which they named Salem in June 1629, probably in allusion to Psalm Ixxvi. 2. In 1628 a patent for the territory was granted by the New England Council to the Dorchester Company, in which the Rev. John White of Dor- chester, England, was conspicuous, and which in the same year sent out a small company under John Endecott as governor. Under the charter for the Colony of Massachusetts Bay (1629), which superseded the Dorchester Company patent, Endecott continued as governor until the arrival in 1630 of John Winthrop, who soon removed the seat of government from Salem first to Charlestown and then to Boston. In July or August 1629 the first Congregational Church (see CONGREGA- TIONALISM, § American) in America was organized here; its "teacher" in 1631 and 1633 and its pastor in 1634-1635 was Roger Williams, a close friend of Governor Endecott and always popular in Salem, who in 1635 fled thence to Rhode Island to escape arrest by the officials of Massachusetts Bay. In 1686, fearing that they might be dispossessed by a new charter, the people of Salem for £20 secured a deed from the Indians to the land they then held. Although not strictly Puritan the character of Salem was not essentially different from that of the other Massachusetts towns. The witchcraft delusion of 1692 centred about Salem Village, now in the township of Danvers, but then a part of Salem. Ten girls, aged nine to seventeen years, two of them house servants, met during the winter of 1691-1692 in the home of Samuel Parris, pastor of the Salem Village church, and after learning palmistry and various " magic " tricks from Parris's West Indian slave, Tituba, and influenced doubtless by current talk about witches, accused Tituba and two old women of bewitching them. The excitement spread rapidly, many more were accused, and, within four months, hundreds were arrested, and many were tried before commissioners of oyer and terminer (appointed on the 27th of May 1692, including Samuel Sewall, q.v., of Boston, and three inhabitants of Salem, one being Jonathan Corwin); nineteen were hanged,1 and one was pressed to death in September for refusing to plead when he was accused. All these trials were conducted in accordance with the English law of the time; there had been an execution for witchcraft at Charlestown in 1648; there was a case in Boston in 1655; in 1680 a woman of Newbury was condemned to death for witchcraft but was reprieved by Governor Simon Bradstreet ; in England and Scotland there were many executions long after the Salem delusion died out. The reaction came suddenly in Salem, and in May 1693 Governor William Phips ordered 1 There is nothing but tradition to identify the place of execution with what is now called Gallows Hill, between Salem and Peabody. SALEM— SALE OF GOODS the release from prison of all then held on the charge of witchcraft. Salem was an important port after 1670, especially in the India trade, and Salem privateers did great damage in the Seven Years' War, in the War of Independence (when 158 Salem privateers took 445 prizes), and in the War of 1812. On this foreign trade and these rich periods of privateering the prosperity of the place up to the middle of the ipth century was built. The First Provincial Assembly of Massachusetts met in Salem in 1774. On the 2oth of February 1775 at the North Bridge (between the present Salem and Danvers) the first armed resist- ance was offered to the royal troops, when Colonel Leslie with the 64th regiment, sent to find cannon hidden in the Salem " North Fields," was held in check by the townspeople. Salem was the birthplace of Nathaniel Hawthorne, W. H. Prescott, Nathaniel Bowditch, Jones Very and W. W. Story. Marblehead was separated from Salem township in 1049-, Beverly in 1668, a part of Middleton in- 11728, and the district of Danvers in 1752. Salem was chartered as a city in 1836. See Charles S. Osgood and Henry M. Batchelder, Historical Sketch of Salem, 1626-1879 (Salem, 1879); Joseph B. Felt, Annals of Salem (ibid., 1827; and ed., 2 vols., 1845-1849); Charles W. Upham, Salem Witchcraft (2 vols., Boston, 1867); H. B. Adams, Village Communities of Cape Ann and Salem (Baltimore, 1883); Eleanor Putnam (the pen-name of Mrs Arlo Bates), OldSalem (Boston, 1886); C. H. Webber and W. S. Nevins, Old Naumkeag (Salem, 1877) ; R. D. Paine, Ships and Sailors of Old Salem (New York, 1909), and Visitor's Guide to Salem (Salem, 1902) published by the Essex Institute. SALEM, a city and the county-seat of Salem county, New Jersey, U.S.A., in the S.W. part of the state, on Salem Creek, about 38 m. S.W. of Philadelphia. Pop. (1900), 5811, of whom 263 were foreign-born and 809 were negroes; (1910 U.S. census), 6614. It is served by the West Jersey & Seashore railroad, and has steamer connexion with Philadelphia. Among its institutions is the John Tyler Library, established as Salem Library in 1804 and said to be the third oldest public library in the state. In Finn's Point National Cemetery, about 4 m. N. of Salem, there are buried some 2460 Confederate soldiers, who died during the Civil War while prisoners of war at Fort Delaware, on an island in Delaware river nearly opposite the mouth of Salem Creek. Salem lies in a rich agricultural region. Among the city's manufactures are canned fruits and vegetables, condiments, glass-ware, brass and iron-work, hosiery, linoleum and oil-cloth. Near the present site in 1643 colonists from Sweden built Fort Elfsborg; but the Swedish settlers in 1655 submitted to the Dutch at New Amsterdam, and the latter in turn surrendered to the English in 1664. In 1675 John Fenwicke, an English Quaker, entered the Delaware river and founded the first permanent English settlement on the Delaware (which he called Salem). After purchasing lands from the Indians, Fenwicke attempted to maintain an independent government, but in 1682 he submitted to the authority of the proprietors of West Jersey. During the War of Independence Salem was plundered on the i7th of March 1778 by British troops under Colonel Charles Mawhood, and on the following day a portion of these troops fought a sharp but indecisive engagement at Quinton's Bridge, 3 m. S. of the town, with American militia under Colonel Benjamin Holmes. Salem was incorporated as a town in 1695, and was chartered as a city in 1858. SALEM, a city of Columbiana county, Ohio, U.S.A., 67 m. N.W. of Pittsburg and about the same distance S.E. of Cleveland. Pop. (1900), 7582, including 667 foreign-born and 227 negroes; (1910) 8943. Salem is served by the Pennsylvania (the Pittsburg, Fort Wayne & Chicago division) and the Youngstown & Ohio River railways, and by an interurban electric line to Canton. The city has a Carnegie library (1896), two beautiful cemeteries, a park, and a Home for Aged Women. It is situated in a fine agricultura'l region; coal is mined in the vicinity; natural gas is obtained in abundance; and the city has various manu- factures. It was settled by Friends in 1806, incorporated as a town in 1830 and as a village in 1852, and chartered as a city in 1887. For several years preceding the Civil War it was a station on the " underground railway " and the headquarters of " the Western Anti-Slavery Society," which published here the Anti- Slavery Bugle. SALEM, the capital of Oregon, U.S.A., and the county-seat of Marion county, on the east bank of the Willamette river, 52 m. S.S.W. of Portland. Pop. (1900), 4258, including 522 foreign- born; (1910) 14,094. It is served by the Southern Pacific railway, by the Oregon Electric line (to Portland), and by a steamship line to Portland. The city is in the centre of the Willamette Valley, a rich farming and fruit-growing country. It has wide, well- shaded streets, and two public parks. Among thepublic buildings and institutions are the State Capitol, the State Library, a city public library, the county court-house, the Federal building, the state penitentiary and several charitable institutions. Salem is the seat of Willamette University (Methodist Episcopal, 1844), an outgrowth of the mission work of the Methodist Episcopal church begun in 1834 about 10 m. below the site of the present city; of the Academy of the Sacred Heart (Roman Catholic, 1860) and of two business colleges. Immediately north of the city at Chemawa is the Salem (non-reservation) government school for Indians, with an excellently equipped hospital. Water power is derived (in part, by an 18 m. canal) from the Santiam, an affluent of the Willamette river. The city is a market for the produce of the Willamette Valley. The settlement here, gathering about the Methodist mission and 'school, began to grow in the decade 1840-1850. Salem was chartered as a city in 1853, and in 1860 was made the capital of the state. It grew rapidly after 1900, and its territory was increased in 1903. SALEM, a town and the county-seat (since 1838) of Roanoke county, Virginia, U.S.A., on the Roanoke river, about 60 m. W. by S. of Lynchburg. Pop. (1900), 3412, including 798 negroes; (1910) 3849. It is served by the Norfolk & Western and the Virginian railways, and has electric railway connexion with Roanoke, about 6 m. E. The town is a summer resort about 1000 ft. above the sea, surrounded by the Alleghany and Blue Ridge mountains. There are chalybeate and sulphur springs in the vicinity. Salem is the seat of a Lutheran Orphan Home (1888), of the Baptist Orphanage of Virginia (1892) and of Roanoke College (co-educational; Lutheran; chartered, 1853). The town is in a dairying, agricultural and fruit-growing region. The Roanoke river provides water-power. The water supply is obtained from a spring within the town limits, from which there flows about 576,000 gallons a day, and from an artesian well. This part of Roanoke county was granted in 1767 to General Andrew Lewis, to whom there is a monument in East Hill Cemetery, where he is buried. Salem, laid out in 1802, was incorporated as a town in 1813. SALE OF GOODS. Sale (O.Eng. sola, sellan, syllan, to hand over, deliver) is commonly defined as the transfer of property from one person to another for a price. This definition requires some consideration in order to appreciate its full scope., The law of sale is usually treated as a branch of the law of contract, because sale is effected by contract. Thus Pothier entitles his classical treatise on the subject, Traite du central de venle, and the Indian Contract Act (ix. of 1872) devotes a chapter to the sale of goods. But a completed contract of sale is something more. It is a contract plus a transfer of property. An agreement to sell or buy a thing, or, as lawyers call it, an executory contract of sale, is a contract pure and simple. A purely personal bond arises thereby between seller and buyer. But a complete or executed contract of sale effects a transfer of ownership with all the advantages and risks incident thereto. By an agreement to sell a, jus in personam is created; by a sale a. jus in rem is trans- ferred. The essence of sale is the transfer of property for a price. If there be no agreement for a price, express or implied, the transaction is gift, not sale, and is regulated by its own peculiar rules and considerations. So, too, if commodity be exchanged for commodity, the transaction is called barter and not sale, and the rules relating to sales do not apply in their entirety. Again, a contract of sale must comtemplate an absolute transfer of the property in the thing sold or agreed to be sold. A mortgage may be in the form of a conditional sale, but English law regards the SALE OF GOODS substance and not the form of the transaction. If in substance the object of the transaction is to secure the repayment of a debt, and not to transfer the absolute property in the thing sold, the law at once annexes to the transaction the complex consequences which attach to a mortgage. So, too, it is not always easy to distinguish a contract for the sale of an article from a contract for the supply of work and materials. If a man orders a set of false teeth from a dentist the contract is one of sale, but if he employs a dentist to stop one of his teeth with gold the contract is for the supply of work and materials. The distinction is of practical importance, because very different rules of law apply to the two classes of contract. The property which may be the subject of sale may be either movable or immovable, tangible or intangible. The present article relates only to the sale of goods — that is to say, tangible movable property. By the laws of all nations the alienation of land or real property is, on grounds of public policy, subject to special regulations. It is obvious that the assignment of " things in action," such as debts, contracts and negotiable instruments, must be governed by very different principles from those which regulate the transfer of goods, when the object sold can be transferred into the physical possession of the transferee. In 1847, when Mr Justice Story wrote his work on the sale of personal property, the law of sale was still in process of development. _ Cod Many rules were still unsettled, especially the rules re- offssj lating to implied conditions and warranties. But for several years the main principles have been well settled. In 1891 the subject seemed ripe for codification, and Lord Herschell introduced a codifying bill which two years later passed into law as the Sale of Goods Act, 1893 (56 & 57 Viet. c. 71). Sale is a consen- sual contract. The parties to the contract may supplement it with any stipulations or conditions they may see fit to agree to. The code in no wise seeks to fetter this discretion. It lays down a few positive rules — such, for instance, as that which reproduces the 1 7th section of the Statute of Frauds. But the main object of the act is to provide clear rules for those cases where the parties have either formed no intention or have failed to express it. When parties enter into a contract they contemplate its smooth performance, and they seldom provide for contingencies which may interrupt that performance — such as the insolvency of the buyer or the destruction of the thing sold before it is delivered. It is the province of the code to provide for these contingencies, leaving the parties free to modify by express stipulation the provisions imported by law. When the code was in contemplation the case of Scotland gave rise to difficulty. Scottish law varies widely from English. To speak broadly, the Scottish law of sale differs from the English by adhering to the rules of Roman law, while the English common law has worked out rules of its own. Where two countries are so closely connected in business as Scotland and England, it is obviously inconvenient that their laws relating to commercial matters should differ. The Mercantile Law Commission of 1855 reported on this question, and recommended that on certain points the Scottish rule should be adopted in England, while on other points the English rule should be adopted in Scotland. The recommendations of the Commission were partially and rather capriciously adopted in the English and Scottish Mercantile Law Amendment Acts of 1856. Certain rules were enacted for England which resembled but did not really reproduce the Scottish law, while other rules were enacted for Scotland which resembled but did not really reproduce the English law. There the matter rested for many years. The Codifying Bill of 1891 applied only to England, but on the advice of Lord Watson it was extended to Scotland. As the English and Irish laws of sale were the same, the case of Ireland gave rise to no difficulty, and the act now applies to the whole of the United Kingdom. As regards England and Ireland very little change in the law has been effected. As regards Scotland the process of assimilation has been carried further, but has not been completed. In a few cases the Scottish rule has been saved or re- enacted, in a few other cases it has been modified, while on other points, where the laws were dissimilar, the English rules have been adopted. Now that the law has been codified, an analysis of the law resolves itself into an epitome of the main provisions of the statute. The act is divided into six parts, the first dealing with the formation of the contract, the second with the effects of the contract, the third with the performance of the contract, the fourth with the rights of an unpaid seller against the goods, and the fifth with remedies for breach of contract, the sixth part is supplemental. The 1st section, which may be regarded as the keystone of the act, is in the following terms: " A contract of sale of goods is a contract whereby the seller transfers or agrees to transfer the property in goods to the buyer for a money consideration called the price. A contract of sale may be absolute or conditional. When under a contract of sale the property in the goods is transferred from the seller to the buyer the contract is called a ' sale,' but when the transfer of the property in the goods is to take place at a future time or subject to some condition thereafter to be fulfilled the contract is called an ' agree- ment to sell." An agreement to sell becomes a sale when the time elapses or the conditions are fulfilled subject to which the property in the goods is to be transferred." This section clearly enunciates the consensual nature of the contract, and this is confirmed by section 55, which provides that " where any right, duty or liability would arise under a contract of sale by implication of law," it may be negatived or varied by express agreement, or by the course of dealing between the parties, or by usage, if the usage be such as to bind both parties to the contract. The next question is who can sell and buy. The act is framed on the plan that if the law of contract were codified, this act would form a chapter in the code. The question of capacity is therefore referred to the general law, but a special provision is inserted (section 2) relating to the supply of necessaries to infants and other persons who are incompetent to contract. Though an infant cannot contract he must live, and he can only get goods by paying for them. The law, therefore, provides that he is liable to pay a reasonable price for necessaries supplied to him, and it defines necessaries as " goods suitable to the condition in life of such minor or other person, and to his actual requirements at the time of the sale and delivery." The 4th section of the act reproduces the famous 1 7th section of the Statute of Frauds, which was an act " for the prevention of frauds and perjuries." The object of that statute was to prevent people from setting up bogus contracts of sale by requiring material evidence of the contract. The section provides that " a contract for the sale of any goods of the value of ten pounds or upwards shall not be enforceable by action unless the buyer shall accept part of the goods so sold, and actually receive the same, or give something in earnest to bind the contract, or in part payment, or unless some note or memorandum in writing of the contract be made and signed by the party to be charged, or his agent in that behalf." It is a much disputed question whether this enactment has done more good or harm. It has defeated many an honest claim, though it may have prevented many a dishonest one from being put forward. When judges and juries have been satisfied of the bona fides of a contract which does not appear to satisfy the statute, they have done their best to get round it. Every expression in the section has been the subject of numerous judicial decisions, which ran into almost impossible refinements, and illustrate the maxim that hard cases make bad law. It is to be noted that Scotland is excluded from the operation of section 4. The Statute of Frauds has never been applied to Scotland, and Scotsmen appear never to have felt the want of it. As regards the subject-matter of the contract, the act provides that it may consist either of existing goods or " future goods " — that is to say, goods to be manufactured or acquired by the seller after the making of the contract (§ 5). Suppose that a man goes into a gunsmith's shop and says, " This gun suits me, and if you will make or get me another like it I will buy the pair." This is a good contract, and no question as to its validity would be likely to occur to the lay mind. But lawyers have seriously raised the question, whether there could be a valid contract of sale when the subject-matter of the contract was not in existence at the time when the contract was made. The price is an essential element in a contract of sale. It may be either fixed by the contract itself, or left to be determined in some manner thereby agreed upon, e.g. by the award of a third party. But there are many cases in which the parties intend to effect a sale, and yet say nothing about the price. Suppose that a man goes into a hotel and orders dinner without asking the price. How is it to be fixed? The law steps in and says that, in the absence of any agree- ment, a reasonable price must be paid (§ 8). This prevents ex- tortion on the part of the seller, and unreasonableness or fraud on the part of the buyer. The next question dealt with is the difficult one of conditions and warranties (§§ loand II). The parties may insert what stipulations they like in a contract of sale, but the law has to interpret w them. The term" warranty "has a peculiar and technical meaning in the law of sale. It denotes a stipulation which the law regards as collateral to the main purpose of the contract. A breach, therefore, does not entitle the buyer to reject the goods, but only to claim damages. Suppose that a man buys a particular horse, which is warranted quiet to ride and drive. If the horse turns out to be vicious, the buyer's only remedy is to claim damages, unless he has expressly reserved a right to return it. But if, instead of buying a particular horse, a man applies to a dealer to supply him with a quiet horse, and the dealer supplies him with a vicious one, the stipulation is a condition. The buyer can either return the horse, or keep it and claim damages. Of course the right of rejection must be exercised within a reasonable time. In Scotland no distinction has been drawn between conditions and warranties, and the act preserves the Scottish rule by providing that, in Scotland, " failure by the seller to perform any material part of a contract of sale " entitles the buyer either to reject the goods within a reasonable time after delivery, or to retain them and claim compensation (§ II (2)). In England it is a very common trick for the buyer to keep the goods, and then set up in reduction of the price that they are of inferior quality to what was ordered. To discourage this practice in Scotland the act provides that, in that country, the court may require the buyer who alleges a breach of contract to bring the agreed price into court SALE OF GOODS pending the decision of the case (| 59). It seems a pity that this sensible rule was not extended to England. In early English law caveat emptor was the general rule, and it was one well suited to primitive times. Men either bought their goods in the open market-place, or from their neighbours, and buyer and seller contracted on a footing of equality. Now the complexity of modern commerce, the division of labour and the increase of technical skill, have altogether altered the state of affairs. The buyer is more and more driven to rely on the honesty, skill and judgment of the seller or manufacturer. Modern law has recognized this, and protects the buyer by implying various conditions and warranties in contracts of sale, which may be summarized as follows: First, there is an implied undertaking on the part of the seller that he has a right to sell the goods (§ 12). Secondly, if goods be ordered by description, they must correspond with that description (§ 13). This, of course, is a universal rule — Si aes pro auro veneat, non valet. Thirdly, there is the case of manufacturers or sellers who deal in particular classes of goods. They naturally have better means of judging of their merchandise than the outside public, and the buyer is entitled within limits to rely on their skill or judgment. A tea merchant or grocer knows more about tea than his customers can, and so does a gun- smith about guns. In such cases, if the buyer makes known to the seller the particular purpose for which the goods are required, there is an implied condition that the goods are reasonably fit for it, and if no particular purpose be indicated there is an implied condition that the goods supplied are of merchantable quality (S) 14). Fourthly, in the case of a sale by sample, there is " an implied condition that the bulk shall correspond with the sample in quality," and that the buyer shall have a reasonable opportunity of comparing the bulk with the sample (§15)- The main object of sale is the transfer of ownership from seller to buyer, and it is often both a difficult and an important matter to determine the precise moment at which the change of ownership is effected. According to Roman law, which is still the foundation of most European systems, the property in a thing sold did not pass until delivery to the buyer. Traditionibus et usucapionibus dominia rerum, non nudis pactis, transferuntut . English law has abandoned this test, and has adopted the principle that the property passes at such time as the parties intend it to pass. Express stipulations as to the time when the property is to pass are very rare. • The intention of the parties has to be gathered from their conduct. A long train of judicial decisions has worked out a more or less artificial series of rules for determining the presumed intention of the parties, and these rules are embodied in sections 16 to 20 of the act. The first rule is a negative one. In the case of unascertained goods, i.e. goods defined by description only, and not specifically identified, " no property in the goods is transferred to the buyer unless and until the goods are ascertained." If a man orders ten tons of scraf) iron from a dealer, it is obvious that the dealer can fulfil his contract by delivering any ten tons of scrap that he may select, and that until the ten tons have been set apart, no question of change of ownership can arise. But when a specific article is bought, or when goods ordered by description are appropriated to the contract, the passing of the property is a question of intention. De- livery to the buyer is strong evidence of intention to change the ownership, but it is not conclusive. Goods may be delivered to the buyer on approval, or for sale or return. Delivery to a carrier for the buyer operates in the main as a delivery to the buyer, but the seller may deliver to the carrier, and yet reserve to himself a right of disposal. On the other hand, when there is a sale of a specific article, which is in a fit state for delivery, the property in the article prima facie passes at once, even though delivery be delayed. When the contract is for the sale of unascertained goods, which are ordered by description, the property in the goods passes to the buyer, when, with the express or implied consent of the parties, goods of the required description are " unconditionally appropriated to the contract." The cases which determine what amounts to an appro- priation of goods to the contract are numerous and complicated. Probably they could all be explained as cases of constructive delivery, but at the time when the law of appropriation was worked out the doctrine of constructive delivery was not known. It is perhaps to be regretted that the codifying act did not adopt the test of delivery, but it was thought better to adhere to the familiar phraseology of the cases. Section 20 deals with the transfer of risk from seller to buyer, and lays down the prima facie rule that " the goods remain at the seller's risk until the property therein is transferred to the buyer, but when the property therein is transferred to the buyer, the goods are at the buyer's risk whether delivery has been made or not." Res peril domino is therefore the maxim of English, as well as of Roman law. In the vast majority of cases people only sell what they have a right to sell, but the law has to make provision for cases where a man Tla sells goods which he is not entitled to sell. An agent may misconceive or exceed his authority. Stolen goods may be passed from buyer to buyer. Then comes the question, Which of two innocent parties is to suffer? Is the original owner to be permanently deprived of his property, or is the loss to fall on the innocent purchaser? Roman law threw the loss on the buyer, Nemo plus juris in alium transferre potest quam ipse habet. French law, m deference to modern commerce, protects the innocent purchaser XXIV. 3 and throws the loss on the original owner. " En fait de meubles, possession vaut titre " (Code civil, ait. 1599). English law is a compromise between these opposing theories. It adopts the Roman rule as its guiding principle, but qualifies it with certain more or less arbitrary exceptions, which cover perhaps the majority of the actual cases which occur (§§ 21 to 26). In the first place, the pro- visions of the Factors Act, 1889 (52 and 53 Viet. c. 45, extended to Scotland by 53 and 54 Viet. c. 40), are preserved. That act validates sales and other dispositions of goods by mercantile agent acting within the apparent scope of their authority, and also protects innocent purchasers who obtain goods from sellers left in possession, or from intending buyers who have got possession of the goods while negotiations are pending. In most cases a contract induced by fraud is voidable only, and not void, and the act provides, accordingly, that a voidable contract of sale shall be avoided to the prejudice of an innocent purchaser. The ancient privilege of market overt1 is preserved intact, section 22 providing that " where goods are sold in market overt, according to the usage of th-> market, the buyer acquires a good title to the goods provided he buys them in good faith, and without notice of any defect or want of title on the part of the seller." The section does not apply to Scotland, nor to the law relating to the sale of horses which is contained in two old statutes, 2 & 3 Phil, and Mar. c. 7, and 31 Eliz. c. 12. The minute regulations of those statutes are never complied with, so their practical effect is to take horses out of the category of things which can be sold in market overt. The privilege of market overt applies only to markets by prescription, and does not attach to newly- created markets. The operation of the custom is therefore fitful and capricious. For example, every shop in the City of London is within the custom, but the custom does not extend to the greater London outside. If then a man buys a stolen watch in Fleet Street, he may get a good title to it, but he cannot do so if he buys it a few doors off in the Strand. There is, however, a qualification of the rights acquired by purchase even in market overt. When goods have been stolen and the thief is prosecuted to conviction, the property in the goods thereupon revests in the original owner, and he is entitled to get them back either by a summary order of the convicting court or by action. This rule dates back to the statute 21 Hen. VIII. c. II. It was probably intended rather to encourage prosecutions in the interests of public justice than to protect people whose goods were stolen. Having dealt with the effects of sale, first, as between seller and buyer, and, secondly, as between the buyer and third parties, the act proceeds to determine what, in the absence of „..*. convention, are the reciprocal rights and duties of the parties in the performance of their contract (§§ 27 to 37). aace- It is the duty of the seller to deliver the goods and of the buyer to accept and pay for them in accordance with the terms of the contract of sale " (§ 27). In ordinary cases the seller's duty to deliver the goods is satisfied if he puts them at the disposal of the buyer at the place of sale. The normal contract of sale is represented by a cash sale in a shop. The buyer pays the price and takes away the goods: " Unless otherwise agreed, delivery of the goods and payment of the price are concurrent conditions " (§27). But agreement, express or implied, may create infinite variations on the normal contract. It is to be noted that when goods are sent to the buyer which he is entitled to reject, and does reject, he is not bound to send them back to the seller. It is sufficient if he intimate to the seller his refusal to accept them (§ 36). The normal theory of sale is cash against delivery, but in the great majority of actual cases, especially in commercial transactions, this theory is departed from in practice. The interests of the seller are therefore protected by two rules — namely, * ightsof those as to lien and as to stoppage in transitu. In the c°«a absence of any different agreement, as, for instance, where there is a stipulation for sale on credit, the unpaid seller has a right to retain possession of the goods until the price is paid or tendered. The right may, of course, be waived, even when it is not negatived by the contract. It is to be noted that when the seller takes a bill of exchange or other negotiable instrument for the price, the instru- ment operates as conditional payment. On the dishonour of the instrument the seller's rights revive (§§ 38-43). If the buyer becomes insolvent the unpaid seller has a further right founded on ancient mercantile usage. He may have parted with both the property in and possession of the goods sold, but he can attach the goods as long as they are in the hands of a carrier or forwarding agent, and have not reached the actual possession of the seller or his immediate agent. " Subject to the provisions of this Act, when the buyer of goods becomes insolvent, the unpaid seller who has parted with the possession of the goods has the right of stopping them in transitu — that is to say, he may resume possession of the goods as long as they are in course of transit, and may retain them until payment or tender of the price " (§ 44). The right of stoppage, however, cannot be exercised to the prejudice of third parties to whom the bill of lading or other document of title to goods has been lawfully trans- ferred for value (§ 47). The ultimate sanction of a contract is the legal remedy for its 1 That is, " open market," where the goods on sale are exposed to view. 66 SALEP— SALESBURY breach. Seller and buyer have each their appropriate remedies. If the property in the goods has passed to the buyer, or if, under the contract, " the price is payable on a day certain irrespec- f<"" tive of delivery, the seller's remedy for breach of the con- and"seUer tract 's an act'on f°r tne price (§ 49). In other cases his ' remedy is an action for damages for non-acceptance. In the case of ordinary goods of commerce the measure of damages is the difference between the contract price and the market or current price at the time when the goods ought to have been accepted. But this test is. often applicable. For instance, the buyer may have ordered some article of special manufacture for which there would be no market. The convenient market-price rule is therefore sub- ordinate to the general principle that " the measure of damages is the estimated loss directly and naturally resulting in the ordinary course of events from the buyer's breach of contract " (§ 56). Similar considerations apply to the buyer's right of action for non-delivery of the goods (§ 51). Section 52 deals with a peculiar feature of English law. In Scotland, as a general rule, a party who complains of a breach of contract is entitled to claim that the contract shall be specifically performed. In England a court of common law could only award damages, and apart from certain recent statutes, a claim for specific performance could only be entertained by a court of equity in a very narrow class of cases when the remedy by damages wasdeemed inadequate. But now, underthe act of 1893, " in any action for breach of contract to deliver specific or ascertained goods the court may, if it thinks fit, direct that the contract shall be per- formed specifically without giving the defendant the option of re- taining the goods on payment of damages." The buyer who com- plains of a breach of warranty on the part of the seller has two remedies. He may either set up the breach of warranty in reduction of the price, or he may pay the price and sue for damages. The prima facie measure of damages is the difference between the value of the goods at th^ time of delivery and the value they would have had if they had answered to the warranty (§ 53). The sixth part of the act is supplemental, and is mainly con- cerned with drafting explanations, but section 58 contains some rules for regulating sales by auction. It prohibits secret bidding on behalf of the seller to enhance the price, but is silent as to combina- tion by buyers to reduce the price. Such a combination, commonly known as a " knock out," is left to be dealt with by the ordinary law of conspiracy. The Sale of Goods Act 1893 was the third attempt made by the English parliament to codify a branch of commercial law. It would be out of place here to discuss the policy of mercantile codification, but it may be noted that there are very few reported cases on the construction of the act, so that its interpretation does not seem to have given rise to difficulty. As has been noted above, the act preserves some curious anomalies and distinctions between English and Scottish law. But the amendments re- quired to remove them would be few and simple, should the legislature ever think it worth while to undertake the task. United States. — The law as to the sale of real estate agrees gener- ally with English law. It is considerably simplified by a system of registration. The covenant of warranty, unknown in England, is the principal covenant for title in the United States. It corresponds generally to the English covenant for quiet enjoyment. The right of judicial sale of buildings under a mechanic's lien for labour and materials is given by the law of many states. The sale of public lands is regulated by Act of Congress. In the law of sale of personal property American law is also based upon English law. The principal differences are that the law of market overt is not recognized by the United States, and that an unpaid vendor is the agent of the vendee to resell on non-payment, and is entitled to recover the difference between the contract price and the price of resale. Warranty of title is not carried as far as in England. United States decisions draw a distinction between goods in the possession and goods not in the possession of the vendor at the time of 'sale. There is no warranty of title of the latter. The Statute of Frauds has been construed in some respects differently from the English decisions. As to unlawful sales, it has been held that a sale in a state where the sale is lawful is valid in a state where it is un-lawful by statute, even though the goods are in the latter state. The ordinary text-books on the law of sale are constantly re-edited and brought up to date. The following among the others may be consulted: Benjamin's Sale of Personal Property; Blackburn's Contract of Sale; Campbell's Law of Sale and Mercantile Agency; Brown's Sale of Goods Act (Scotland); Chalmers's Sale of Goods Act; Moyle's Contract of Sale in the Civil Law; E. J. Schuster s Principles of German Civil Law; Beddarride's Des achats et ventes commer- cials; Story's Sale of Personal Property (United States). (M. D. CH.) SALEP (Arab, sahleb, Gr. Spx«)> a drug extensively used in oriental countries as a nervine restorative and fattener, and also much prescribed in paralytic affections. It probably owed its original popularity to the belief in the " doctrine of signatures." It is not used in European medicine. It consists of the tuberous roots of various species of Orchis and Ettlophia, which are decorti- cated, washed, heated until horny in appearance, and then dried. Its most important constituent is a mucilaginous substance which it yields with cold water to the extent of 48%. SALERNO (anc. Salernum), a seaport and archiepiscopal see of Campania, Italy, capital of the province of Salerno, on the west coast, 33 m. by rail S.E. of Naples. Pop. (1901), 28,936 (town); 45,313 (commune). The ruins of its old Norman castle stand on an eminence 905 ft. above the sea with a back- ground of graceful limestone hills. The town walls were destroyed in the beginning of the i9th century; the seaward portion has given place to the Corso Garibaldi, the principal promenade. The chief buildings are the theatre, the prefecture, and the cathedral of St Matthew (whose bones were brought from Paestum to Salerno in 954), begun in 1076 by Robert Guiscard and consecrated in 1084 by Gregory VII. In front is a beautiful quadrangular court (112 by 102 ft.), surrounded by arcades formed of twenty-eight ancient pillars mostly of granite from Paestum, and containing twelve sarcophagi of various periods; the middle entrance into the church is closed by remarkable bronze doors of nth-century Byzantine work. The nave and two aisles end in apses. Two magnificent marble ambones, the larger dating from 1175, a large nth-century altar frontal in the south aisle, having scenes from the Bible carved on thirty ivory tablets, with 13th-century mosaics in the apse, given by Giovanni da Procida, the promoter of the Sicilian Vespers, and the tomb of Pope Gregory VII., and that of Queen Margaret of Durazzo, mother of King Ladislaus, erected in 1412, deserve to be mentioned. In the crypt is a bronze statue of St Matthew. The cathedral possesses a fine Exultet roll. S. Domenico near it has Norman cloisters, and several of the other churches contain paintings by Andrea Sabbatini da Salerno, one of the best of Raphael's scholars. A fine port constructed by Giovanni da Procida in 1260 was destroyed when Naples became the capital of the kingdom, and remained blocked with sand till after the unification of Italy, when it was cleared; but it is now unimportant. The chief industries are silk and cotton-spinning and printing. Good wine is produced in the neighbourhood. A branch railway runs'N. up the Irno valley to Mercato S. Severino on the line from Naples to Avellino. A Roman colony (Salernum) was founded in 194 B.C. to keep the Picentini in check. It was captured by the Samnites in the Social War. It was the point at which the coast road to Paestum diverged from the Via Popillia, rejoining it again E. of Buxentum. In the 4th century the correctores of Lucania and the territory of the Bruttii resided here, but it did not attain its full importance till after the Lombard conquest. Dismantled by order of Charlemagne, it became in the gth century the capital of an independent principality, the rival of that of Benevento, and was surrounded by strong fortifica- tions. The Lombard princes, who had frequently defended their city against the Saracens, succumbed before Robert Guiscard, who took the castle after an eight months' siege and made Salerno the capital of his new territory. The removal of the court to Palermo and the sack of the city by the emperor Henry VI. in 1194 put a stop to its development. The medical school of the Civitas Hippo- cratica (as it called itself on its seals) held a high position in medieval times. Salerno university, founded in 1 150, and long one of the great seats of learning in Italy, was closed in 1817. See A. Avena, Monumenti dell' Italia Meridionale (Naples, 1902), i. 371 sqq- (T. As.) SALERS, a village of central France, in the department of Cantal, 30 m. N. of Aurillac by road. Pop. (1906), 659. Salers dates from the gth or loth century and its lords were already powerful in the nth century. It is finely situated on a plateau overlooking the valley of the Maronne. It is a quaint old town with a church of the i3th and isth centuries, remains of its ancient ramparts and many houses of the isth and i6th centuries. Salers has given its name to a celebrated breed of red cattle raised in the district. SALESBURY (or SALISBURY), WILLIAM (c. i^o-c. 1600), Welsh scholar, was a native of Denbighshire, being the son of Foulke Salesbury, who belonged to a family said to be descended from a certain Adam of Salzburg, a member of the ducal house of Bavaria, who came to England in the I2th century. Salesbury was educated at Oxford, where he accepted the Protestant SALEYER— SALFORD 67 faith, but he passed most of his life at Llanrwst, working at his literary undertakings. The greatest Welsh scholar of his time, Salesbury was acquainted with nine languages, including Latin, Greek and Hebrew, and was learned in philology and botany. He died about 1600. About 1546 he edited a collection of Welsh proverbs (Oil synwyr pen kembero), probably the first book printed in Welsh, and in 1547 his Dictionary in Englyshe and Welshe was published (facsimile edition, 1877). In 1563 the English parliament ordered the Welsh bishops to arrange for the translation of the Scriptures and the book of common prayer into Welsh. The New Testament was assigned to Sales- bury, who had previously translated parts of it. He received valu- able assistance from Richard Davies, bishop of St Davids, and also from Thomas Huet, or Hewett (d. 1591), but he himself did the greater part of the work. The translation was made from the Greek, but Latin versions were consulted, and in October 1567 the New Testament was published for the first time in Welsh. This translation never became very popular, but it served as the basis for the new one made by Bishop William Morgan (c. 1547- 1604). Salesbury and Davies continued to work together, translat- ing various writings into Welsh, until about 1576 when the literary partnership was broken. After this event, Salesbury, although continuing his studies, produced nothing of importance. Other noteworthy members of the family (the modern spelling is Salusbury) are: JOHN SALESBURY (c. 1500-1573), who held many preferments under the Tudor sovereigns and was bishop of Sodor and Ma.i from 1571 to 1573; THOMAS SALESBURY (c. 1555-1586), an associate of Anthony Babington, who was executed for conspiring against Queen Elizabeth; HENRY SALESBURY (1561-0. 1637), the author of a Welsh grammar published in 1593; THOMAS SALESBURY (d. 1643), a poet, who probably fought for Charles I. at Edgehill; and another royalist, WILLIAM SALESBURY (c. is8o-c. 1659), governor of Denbigh Castle, which, in 1646, he gallantly defended in the interests of the king. SALEYER (Dutch, Saleijer), a group of islands belonging to the government of Celebes and its dependencies in the Dutch East Indies, numbering altogether 73, the principal being Saleyer, Tambalongang, Pulasi and Bahuluwang; between 5° 36' and 7° 25' S. and 119° 50' and 121° 30' E. The mainisland, Saleyer, is over 50 m. long and very narrow; area, 248 sq. m. The strait separating it from Celebes is more than 100 fathoms deep and, running in a strong current, is dangerous for native ships to navigate. The strata of the island are all sedimentary rocks: coralline limestone, occasionally sandstone; everywhere, except in the north and north-west, covered by a fertile soil. The watershed is a chain running throughout the island from N. to S., reaching in Bontona Haru 5840 ft., sloping steeply to the east coast. The population, mainly a mixed race of Macassars, Buginese, the natives of Luvu and Buton, is estimated at 57,000 on the main island and 24,000 on the dependent isles. They use the Macassar language, are for the most part nominally Mahommedans (though many heathen customs survive), and support themselves by agriculture, fishing, seafaring, trade, the preparation of salt (on the south coast) and weaving. Field work is largely performed by a servile class. Raw and prepared cotton, tobacco, trepang, tortoise-shell, coco-nuts and coco-nut oil, and salt are exported. There are frequent emigra- tions to Celebes and other parts of the archipelago. For that reason, and also on account of its excellent horses and numerous buffaloes, Saleyer is often compared with Madura, being of the same import- ance to Celebes as is Madura to Java. SALFORD, a municipal, county -and parliamentary borough of Lancashire, England, 189 m. N.W. by N. of London and 31 m. E. by N. of Liverpool. Pop. (1908 estimate), 239,234. Salford also gives its name to the hundred of south-west Lanca- shire in which Manchester is situated; probably because when the district was divided into hundreds Manchester was in a ruinous condition from Danish ravages. The parliamentary and municipal boundaries of Salford are identical; area, 5170 acres. The parliamentary borough has three divisions, each returning a member. The borough, composed of three townships identical with the ancient manors of Salford, Pendleton and Broughton, is for the most part separated from Manchester by the river Irwell, which is crossed by a series of bridges. The valley of the Irwell, now largely occupied by factories, separates the higher ground of Broughton from that of Pendleton, and is flattest at the south where it joins the Manchester boundary. At the other extremity of Salford it joins the borough of Eccles. The chief railway station is Exchange station, which is in Salford, but has its main approach in Manchester. The Lancashire & Yorkshire and the London & North-Western railways serve the town. Until 1634 Salford was entirely dependent upon Manchester in its ecclesiastical arrangements. In that year Sacred Trinity Church ("Salford Chapel ) was built and endowed under the will of Humphrey Booth the elder, who also founded charities which have grown greatly in value. The yearly income of more than £17,000 is disposed of in pensions and in hospital grants. His grandson, Humphrey Booth the younger, left money for the repair of the church and the residue is distributed amongst the poor. The yearly revenue is about £1400. Salford is the seat of a Roman Catholic bishopric, and its cathedral, St John's, with its spire of 240 ft., is the most noteworthy ecclesiastical building in the borough. Salford has been to a large extent overshadowed by Manchester, and the two boroughs, in spite of their separate government, are so closely con- nected as to be one great urban area. Many of the institutions in Manchester are intended for the service also of Salford, which, however, has resisted all attempts at municipal amalgamation. The chief public buildings are the museum and art gallery at Peel Park, the technical school, the education offices and the Salford Hospital. The town hall, built in 1825, is no longer adequate for municipal needs. Broughton and Pendleton have each a separate town hall. The large and flourishing technical school was developed from a mechanics' institution. Peel Park, bought by public sub- scription in 1846, was the first public recreation ground in the borough. In the grounds are Langwortny Gallery and a museum. In the park are statues of Queen Victoria, the Prince Consort, Sir Robert Peel, Joseph Brotherton and Richard Cobden. The only other monu- ment— a South African War memorial — is outside and almost opposite Peel Park. Other parks are at Seedley, Albert and Buile Hill; the last contains a museum, the contents of which have been transferred from Peel Park. There is also Kersal Moor, 21 acres of Moorland, crossed by a Roman road, which has been noticed for the variety of its flora, and for the capture of the Oecophara Woodiella, of which there is no other recorded habitat. The David Lewis recreation ground at Pendleton may also be named. Altogether Salford has thirty parks and open spaces having a total area of 217 acres. The corporation have also provided two cemeteries. When the municipal museum was founded in 1849 a reference library formed part of the institution, and from this has developed a free library system in which there are also nine lending libraries. The commercial and industrial history of Salford is closely bound up with that of Manchester. It is the seat of extensive cotton, iron, chemical and allied industries. It owes its development to the steam-engine and the factory system, and in recent years has shared in the increase of trade owing to the construction of the Manchester Ship Canal, which has added greatly to its prosperity. This will be seen by an examination of the rateable value of the three townships now comprised in the borough. This in 1692 was £1404; in 1841, £244,853; in 1884, £734,220; in 1901, £967,727; in 1908-1909, £1,022,172. The municipal government is in the hands of a town council con- sisting of 16 aldermen and 48 councillors elected in 16 wards. The water-supply is from Manchester. The corporation have an excellent tramway service. There are also municipal baths. Salford has a separate commission of the peace. There are no certain figures as to the population before 1773, when at the instance of Dr Thomas Percival a census was taken of Manchester and Salford. The latter had then 4755 inhabitants. Census returns show that its population in 1801 was 14,477; in 1851, 63,850; and in 1901, 220,956. The death-rate in 1906 was 18-5 per thousand. Within the present borough area there have been found neo- lithic implements and British urns, as well as Roman coins. In 1851 traces of a Roman road were still visible. Domesday Book mentions Salford as held by Edward the Confessor and as having a forest three leagues long and the same broad. At the Conquest it was part of the domain granted to Roger of Poitou, but reverted to the crown in 1 102. After successively belonging to the earls of Chester and of Derby it passed to Edward Crouch- back, earl of Lancaster. It was erected into a duchy and county palatine in 1353, and when the house of Lancaster succeeded to the throne their Lancashire possessions were kept separate. Salford and Pendleton are still parts of the ancient duchy of Lancaster, belonging to the English crown. In 1231 Ranulf de Blundeville, earl of Chester, granted a charter constituting Salford a " free borough." But the government notwithstanding was essentially manorial and not municipal. In the Civil Wars between Charles I. and the parliament, Salford was royalist, 68 SALICETI— SALIC LAW and the unsuccessful siege of Manchester was conducted from its side of the Irwell. Its later history is mainly identical with that of Manchester (q.v.). In 1844 it received a municipal charter and became a county borough in 1889. BIBLIOGRAPHY. — There is no separate history ofSalford; see publications named under MANCHESTER. The MS. records of the Portmote or Court Leet, 1597-1669, were edited by J. G. Mandley for the Chetham Society, but others still remain in manuscript in the State Paper Office. (W. E. A. A.) SALIC2TI, ANTOINE CHRISTOPHE (1757-1809), French revolutionist, was born at Saliceto, in Corsica, on the 26th of August 1757, of a family of Piacenza. After studying law in Tuscany, he became an avocat at the upper council of Bastia, and was elected deputy of the Third Estate to the French states-general in 1789. As deputy to the Convention, Saliceti voted for the death of Louis XVI., and was sent to Corsica on mission to oppose the counter-revolutionary intrigues. But the success of his adversaries compelled him to withdraw to Provence, where he took part in repressing the revolts at Marseilles and Toulon. It was on this mission that he met and helped his compatriot Bonaparte. On account of his friendship with Robespierre, Saliceti was denounced at the revolution of 9 Thermidor, and was saved only by the amnesty of the year IV. He subsequently organized the army of Italy and the two departments into which Corsica had been divided, was deputy to the Council of the Five Hundred, and accepted various offices under the Consulate and the Empire, being minister of police and of wai at Naples under Joseph Bonaparte (1806-1809). He died at Naples on the 23rd of December 1809 — it has been alleged by poison. SALICIN, SALICINUM, C,iH,,07, the bitter principle of willow-bark, discovered by Leroux in 1831. It exists in most species of Salix and Popttlus, and has been obtained to the extent of 3 or 4% from the bark of 5. helix and 5. pentandra. Salicin is prepared from a decoction of the bark by first precipitat- ing the tannin by milk of lime, then evaporating the filtrate to a soft extract, and dissolving out the salicin by alcohol. As met with in commerce it is usually in the form of glossy white scales or needles. It is neutral, odourless, unaltered by exposure to the air, and has a bitter taste. It is soluble in about 30 parts of water and 80 parts of alcohol at the ordinary temperature, and in 0-7 of boiling water or in 2 pans of boiling alcohol, and more freely in alkaline liquids. It is also soluble in acetic acid without alteration, but is insoluble in chloroform and benzol. From phloridzin it is distinguished by its ammoniacal solution not becoming coloured when exposed to the air. Chemically, it is a glucoside derived from glucose and saligenin (o-oxy-benzyl alcohol), into which it is decomposed by the enzymes ptyalme and emulsin. Oxidation converts it into helicin (salicyl- aldehyde-glucose). Populin, a benzoyl salicin, is a glucoside found in the leaves and bark of Populus tremula. Salicin is used in medicine for the same purposes as salicylic acid and the salicylates. It is also used as a bitter tonic, i.e. a gastric stimulant, in doses of five grains. The ordinary dose may go up to forty grains or more with perfect safety, though the British Pharma- copoeia limits it to twenty. The remote action of the drug is that of salicylic acid or the numerous compounds that contain it (see SALICYLIC ACID). SALIC LAW, and OTHER PRANKISH LAWS. The Salic Law is one of those early medieval Frankish laws which, with other early Germanic laws (see GERMANIC LAWS), are known collect- ively as leges barbarorum. It originated with the Salian Franks, often simply called Salians, the chief of that conglomeration of Germanic peoples known as Franks. The Salic Law has come down to us in numerous MSS. and in divers forms. The most ancient form, represented by Latin MS. No. 4404 in the Biblioth&jue Nationale at Paris, consists of 65 chapters. The second form has the same 65 chapters, but contains interpolated provisions which show Christian influence. The third text ^consists of 99 chapters, and is divided into two groups, ac- cording as the MSS. contain or omit the " Malberg glosses."' The 1 Some of the MSS. contain words in a barbarian tongue and often preceded by the word " malb." or " malberg." These are admitted to be Frankish words, and are known as the Malberg glosses. Opinions differ as to the true import of these glosses; some scholars hold that the Salic Law was originally written in the Frankish vernacular, and that these words are remnants of the ancient text, while others regard them as legal formulae such as would be used either by a plaintiff in introducing a suit, or by the judge to denote the exact composition to be pronounced. It is more probable, however, that these words served the Franks, who were ignorant of Latin, as clues to the general sense of each paragraph of the law. fourth version, as emended by Charlemagne, consists of 70 chapters with the Latinity corrected and without the glosses. Though he added some new provisions, Charlemagne respected the ancient ones, even those which had long fallen into disuse. The last version, published by B. J. Herold at Basel in 1557 (Originum ac Germani- carum antiquilatum libn) from a MS. now lost, is founded on the second recension, but contains additions of considerably later date. The law is a compilation, the various chapters were composed at different periods, and we do not possess the original form of the compilation. Even the most ancient text, that in 65 chapters, contains passages which a comparison with the later texts shows to be interpolations. It is possible that chapter i., De mannire, was taken from a Merovingian capitulary and afterwards placed at the beginning of the Salic Law. This granted, internal evidence would go to show that the first compilation dates back to the timeof Clovis, and doubtless to the last years of his reign, after his victory over the Visigoths (507-511). Many facts combine to preclude the assign- ment of an earlier date to the compilation of the law. The Germanic tribes had no need to use the Latin language until they had coalesced with the Gallo-Roman population. The scale of judicial fines is given in the denarius (" which makes so many solidi "), and it is known that the monetary system of the solidus did not appear until the Merovingian period. Even in its earliest form the law contains no trace of paganism — a significant fact when we consider how closely law and religion are related in their origins. As pointed out by H. Brunner in his Deutsche Rechtsgeschickte (i. 438), the Salic Law contains imitations of the Visigothic laws of Euric (466-485). Finally, chapter xlvii. seems to indicate that the Frankish power extended south of the Loire, since it speaks of men dwelling " trans Legerem " being summoned to the mallus (judicial assembly) and being allowed eighty nights for their journey. On the other hand, it is impossible to place the date of compilation later. The Romans are clearly indicated in the law as subjects, but as not yet forming part of the army, which consists solely of the antrustions, i.e. Frankish warriors of the king's bodyguard. As yet the law is not impregnated with the Christian spirit ; this absence of both Christian and Pagan elements is due to the fact that many of the Franks were still heathens, although their king had been converted to Christianity. Christian enactments were introduced gradually into the later versions. Finally, we find capitularies of the kings immediately following Clovis being gradually incorporated in the text of the law — e.g. the Pactum pro tenore pads of Childebert Land Clotaire I. (511- 558), and the Ediclum Chilperici (561-584), chapter iii. of which cites and emends the Salic Law. The law as originally compiled underwent modifications of varying importance before it took the form known to us in Latin MS. No. 4404, to which the edict of Childebert I. and Clotaire I. is already appended. The classes of MSS. distinguished above give evidence of further changes, the law being supplemented by other capitularies and sundry extravagantia, prologues and epilogues, which some historians have wrongly assumed to be parts of the main text. Finally, Charlemagne, who took a keen interest in the ancient documents, had the law emended, the operation consisting in eliminating the Malberg glosses, which were no longer intelligible, correcting the Latinity of the ancient text, omitting a certain number of interpolated chapters, and adding others which had obtained general sanction. The Salic Law is a collection of ancient customs put into writing by order of the prince. In the sense that they already existed and came ready-made to the prince's hand, it is legitimate to speak of these customs as a popular law, a Volksrechl; but it was the prince who gave them force of law, emended them, and rejected such of the ancient usages as appeared to him antiquated. The king, moreover, had the right to add provisions to the law; and we find capitularies of Charlemagne and Louis the Pious in the form of additamenta to the Salic Law. From this it will be seen that the Salic Law is not a political law; it is in no way concerned with the succession to the throne of France, and it is absolutely false to suppose that it was the Salic Law that was invoked in 1316 and 1322 to exclude the daughters of Louis X. and Philip V. from the succession to the throne. The Salic Law is pre-eminently a penal code, which shows the amount of the fines for various offences and crimes, and contains, besides, some civil law enactments, such as the famous chapter on succession to private property (de alode), which declares that daughters cannot inherit land. The text is filled with valuable information on the state of the family and property in the 6th century, and it is astonishing to find Montesquieu describing the Salic Law as the law of a people ignorant of landed property. The code also contains abundant information on the organization of the tribunals (tribunal of the hundred and tribunal of the king) and on procedure. Like all the barbarian laws, the law of the Salian Franks SALICYLIC ACID 69 was a personal law; it applied only to the Salian Franks. As the Salians, however, were the victorious race, the law acquired an authority in excess of the other barbarian laws, and in the additions made to the Ripuarian, Lombard, and other allied laws, the Carolingians endeavoured to bring these laws into harmony with the Salic Law. Moreover, many persons, even of foreign race, declared themselves willing to live under the Salic Law. The principle of personality, however, gradually gave way to that of territoriality; and in every district, at least north ot the Loire, customs were formed in which were combined in varying proportions Roman law, ecclesiastical law and the various Germanic laws. So late as the loth and nth centuries we find certain texts invoking the Salic Law, but only in a vague and general way; and it would be rash to conclude from this that the Salic Law was still in force. Of the numerous editions of the Salic Law only the principal ones can be mentioned: J. M. Pardessus, Loi salique (Paris, 1843), 8 texts; G. Waitz, Das alte Recht der salischen Franken (1846), text of the first version; J. F. Behrend, Lex Salica (1873; 2nd ed., Weimar, 1897); J. H. Hessels, Lex Salica: the Ten Texts with the Glosses, and the Lex Emendata, with notes on the Prankish words in the Lex Salica by H. Kern (1880), the various texts shown in synoptic tables ; A. Holder, Lex Salica (1879 seq.), reproductions of all the MSS. with all the abbreviations; H. Geffcken, Lex Salica (Leipzig, 1898), the text in 65 chapters, with commentary paragraph by paragraph, and appendix of additamenta; and the edition undertaken by Mario Krammer for the Man. Germ. hist. For further information see the dissertations prefixed to the editions of Pardessus, Waitz and Hessels ; Jungbohn Clement, Forschungen tiber das Recht der salischen Franken (Berlin, 1876); R. Sohm, Der Process der Lex Salica (Weimar, 1867; French trans, by M. Th6venin) and Die frankische Reichs- und Gerichtsverfassung (Weimar, 1876); J. J. Thonissen, L'Organisa- tion judiciaire, le droit penal el la procedure de la loi salique (2nd ed., Brussels and Paris, 1882); P. E. Fahlbeck, La Royaule el la droit royal francs (Lund, 1883); Mario Krammer, " Kntische Untersu- chungen zur Lex Salica " in the Neues Archiv, xxx. 263 seq.; H. Brunner, Deutsche Rechtsgeschichte (2nd ed., Leipzig, 1906), i. 427 seq. The Lex Ripuaria was the law of the Ripuarian Franks, who dwelt between the Meuse and the Rhine, and whose centre was Cologne. We have no ancient MSS. of the law of the Ripuarians; the 35 MSS. we possess, as well as those now lost which served as the basis of the old editions, do not go back beyond the time of Charlemagne (end of 8th century and gth century). In all these MSS. the text is identical, but it is a revised text — in other words, we have only a lex emendata. On analysis, the law of the Ripuarians, which contains 89 chapters, falls into three heterogeneous divisions. Chapters i.- xxxi. consist of a scale of compositions; but, although the fines are calculated, not on the unit of 15 solidi, as in the Salic Law, but on that of 18 solidi, it is clear that this part is, already influenced by the Salic Law. Chapters xxxii.-lxiv. are taken directly from the Salic Law; the provisions follow the same arrangement; the unit of the compositions is 15 solidi; but capitularies are interpolated relating to the affranchisement and sale of immovable property. Chapters Ixv.-lxxxix. consist of provisions of various kinds, some taken from lost capitularies and from the Salic Law, and others of unknown origin. The compilation apparently goes back to the reign of Dagobert I. (629-630), to a time when the power of the mayors of the palace was still feeble, since we read of a mayor being threatened with the death penalty for taking bribes in the course of his judicial duties. It is probable, however, that the first two parts are older than the third. Already in the Ripuarian Law the diverg- ences from the old Germanic law are greater than in the Salic Law. In the Ripuarian Law a certain importance attaches to written deeds; the clergy are protected by a higher wergild — 600 solidi for a priest, and 900 for a bishop; on the other hand, more space is given to the cojuralores (sworn witnesses); and we note the appearance of the judicial duel, which is not men- tioned in the Salic Law. There is an edition of the text of the Ripuarian Law in Man. Ger. hist. Leges (1883), v. 185 seq. by R. Sohm, who also brought out a separate edition in 1885 for the use of schools. For further informa- tion see the prefaces to Sohm's editions; Ernst Mayer, Zur Entstehung der Lex Ribuariorum (Munich, 1886); Julius Ficker, " Die Heimat der Lex Ribuaria " in the Mitteilunge.n fur osterrei- chische Geschichtsforschung (supplt., vol. v.); H. Brunner, Deutsche Rechtsgeschichte (2nd ed., Leipzig, 1906), i., 442. Lastly, we possess a judicial text in 48 paragraphs, which bears the title of Notitia vel commemoratio de ilia ewa (law), quae se ad Amor em habet. This was in use in the district along the Yssel formerly called Hamalant. The name Hamalant is unquestionably derived from the Prankish tribe of the Chamavi, and the document is often called Lex Francorum Chamavorum. This text, however, is not a law, but rather an abstract of the special usages obtaining in those regions — what the Germans call a Weistum. It was compiled by the itinerant Prankish officials known as the missi Dominici, and the text undoubtedly goes back to the time of Charlemagne, perhaps to the years 802 and 803, when the activity of the missi was at its height. In certain chapters it is possible to discern the questions of the missi and the answers of the inhabitants. Theie is an edition of this text by R. Sohm in Man. Germ. hist. Leges, v. 269, and another appended to the same writer's school edition of the Lex Ribuaria. For further information see E. T. Gauprj, Lex Francorum Chamavorum (Breblau, 1855; French trans, in vol. i. of the Revue historique de droit }ran$ais et etranger); Fustel de Coulanges, Nouvelles Recherches sur quelques problemes d'histoire (Paris, 1891), pp. 399-414; H. Froidevaux, Recherches sur la lex dicta Francorum Chamavorum (Paris, 1891). (C. PF.) SALICYLIC ACID (ortho-hydroxybenzoic acid), an aromatic acid, C6IL.(OH)(CO2H), found in the free state in the buds of Spiraea Ulmaria and, as its methyl ester, in gaultheria oil and in the essential oil of Andromeda Leschenaullii. It was discovered in 1838 by Piria as a decomposition product of salicin. It may be obtained by the oxidation of saligenin and of salicylic aldehyde; by the distillation of copper benzoate; by the decomposition of anthranilic acid with nitrous acid; by fusion of ortho-chlor or ortho-brom benzoic acid with potash; by heating ortho- cyanphenol with alcoholic potash; by heating a mixture of phenol, carbon tetrachloride and alcoholic potash to 100° C. (F. Tiemann and K Reimer, Ber., 1876, 9, p. 1285); and by the action of sodium on a mixture of phenol and chlorcarbonic ester (T. Wilm and G. Wischin, Zeit.f. Chemie, 1868, 6). It is manufactured by Kolbe's process or by some modification of the same. Sodium phenolate is heated in a stream of carbon dioxide in an iron retort at a temperature of 180-220° C., when half the phenol distils over and a basic sodium salicylate is left. The sodium salt is dissolved in water and the free acid precipitated by hydrochloric acid (H. Kolbe, Ann., 1860, 115, p. 201). R. Schmitt (Jour. prak. Chem., 1885 (2), 31, p. 407) modified the process by saturating sodium phenolate at 130° C. with carbon dioxide, in an autoclave, sodium phenyl carbonate CjH&OCOzNa being thus formed; by continuing the heating under pressure this carbonate gradually changes into mono-sodium salicylate. S. Manasse (German patent 73,279) prepared an intimate mixture of phenol and potassium carbonate, which is then heated in a closed vessel with carbon dioxide, best at 130-160° C. The Chemische Fabrik vorm. Hofmann and Schotensack decompose a mixture of phenol (3 molecules) and sodium carbonate (4 mols.) with carbonyl chloride at 140-200° C. When 90 % of the phenol has distilled over, the residue is dissolved and hydrochloric acid added, any phenol remaining is blown over in a current of steam, and the salicylic acid finally precipitated by hydrochloric acid. The acid may also be obtained by passing carbon monoxide over a mixture of sodium phenolate and sodium carbonate at200°C.:Na2CO3+ C6H2ONa+CO = C7H4O2Na2 + HCO2Na;and by heating sodium phenolate with ethyl phenyl carbonate to 200° C. : C6H6O-CO2C2H+C6H6ONa = HO-CeH4COjNa-|-CeH6-C2H5. It isto be noted in the Kolbe method of synthesis that potassium pheno- late may be used in place of the sodium salt, provided that the temperature be kept low (about 1 50 ° C) , for at the higher temperature (220° C.) the isomeric para-oxybenzoic acid is produced. Salicylic acid crystallizes in small colourless needles which melt at 155° C. It is sparingly soluble in cold water, but readily dissolves in hot. It sublimes, but on rapid heating decomposes into carbon dioxide and phenol. It is volatile in steam. Ferric chloride colours its aqueous solution violet. Potassium bichro- mate and sulphuric acid oxidize it to carbon dioxide and water; and potassium chlorate and hydrochloric acid to chloranil. On boiling with concentrated nitric acid it yields picric acid. When heated with nesorcin to 200° C. it gives trioxybenzophenone. Bromine water in dilute aqueous solution gives a white pre- cipitate of tribromophenol-bromide CeH2Br3-OBr. Sodium reduces salicylic acid in boiling amyl alcohol solution to w-pimelic acid (A. Einhorn and R. Willstatter, Ber., 1893, 26, pp. 2, 913; 1894, 27 p. 331). Potassium persulphate oxidizes it in alkaline solution, the product on boiling with acids giving 7° SALIERI— SALII hydroquinone carboxylic acid (German Patent 81,297). When boiled with calcium chloride and ammonia, salicylic acid gives a precipitate of insoluble basic calcium salicylate, CeKU <^ Q 2^> Ca, a reaction which serves to distinguish it from the isomeric meta- and para-hydroxybenzoic acids. It yields both esters and ethers since it is an acid and also a phenol. Methyl Salicylate, C«H4(OH)-COjCH,, found in oil of wintergreen, in the oil of Viola tricolor and in the root of varieties of Polygala, is a pleasant-smelling liquid which boils at 222° C. On passing dry ammonia into the boiling ester, it gives salicylamide and dimethylam- ine. When boiled with aniline it gives methylaniline and phenol. Ethyl salicylate, C,H4(OH)-CO2CtHs, is obtained by boiling salicylic acid with alcohol and a little sulphuric acid, or by dropping an alco- holic solution of salicylic acid into 0-naphthalene sulphonic acid at a temperature of 140-150° C. (German Patent 76,574). It is a pleasant- smelling liquid which boils at 233° C. It is practically unchanged when boiled with aniline. Phenyl salicylate, C«H4(OH)-C-OjC5H5> or salol, is obtained by heating salicylic acid, phenol and phosphorus oxychloride to 120-125° C. ; by heating salicylic acid to 220° C.; or by heating salicyl metaphosphoric acid and phenol to 140-150° C. (German Patent 85,565). It crystallizes in rhombic plates which melt at 42° C. and boil at 172° C. (12 mm.). Its sodium salt is transformed into the isomeric C«H«(OC6HS) CO2Na when heated to 300°. When heated in air for many hours it decomposes, yielding carbon dioxide, phenol and xanthone. Acetyl-salicylic acid (salacetic acid), CeH4(O-COCH,)-COsH, is obtained by the action of acetyl chloride on the acid or its sodium salt (K. Kraut, Ann., 1869, 150, p. 9). It crystallizes in needles and melts at 132° C. (with decom- position). Hydrolysis with baryta water gives acetic and salicylic acids. It is used in medicine under the names aspirin, acetysal, aletodin, saletin, xaxa, &c. It has the same action as salicylic acid and salicylates, but is said to be much freer from objectionable secondary effects. Salicylo-salicylic acid O- (C,H4COjH)j is obtained by continued heating of salicylic acid and acetyl chloride to 130- 140° C. It is an amorphous yellow mass which is easily soluble in alcohol. Applications. — The addition of a little of the acid to glue renders it more tenacious; skins to be used for making leather do not undergo decomposition if steeped in a dilute solution; butter containing a small quantity of it may be kept sweet for months even in the hottest weather. It also prevents the mouldiness of preserved fruits and has been found useful in the manufacture of vinegar. The use of salicylic acid as a food preservative, was, however, condemned in the findings of the commission appointed by the government of the United States of America, in 1904. Medicine. — The pharmacopeial dose of the acid is 5-20 grains, but it is so unrelated to experience and practice that it may be ignored. The British Pharmacopeia contains only one prepara- tion, an ointment containing one part of acid to 49 of white paraffin ointment. Salicylic acid is now never given internally, being replaced by its sodium salt, which is much cheaper, more soluble and less irritating to mucous membranes. The salt has a sweet, mawkish taste. Salicylic acid and salicin (j[.r.) share the properties common to the group of aromatic acids, which, as a group, are antiseptic without being toxic to man — a property practically unique ; are unstable in the Body; are antipyetic and analgesic; and diminish the excretion of urea by the kidneys. As an antiseptic salicylic acid is somewhat less powerful than carbolic acid, but its insolubility renders it un- suitable for general use. It is much more powerful than carbolic acid in its inhibitory action upon unorganized ferments such as pepsin or ptyalin. Salicyclic acid is not absorbed by the skin, but it rapidly kills the cells of the epidermis, without affecting the im- mediately subjacent cells of the dermis (" true skin "). It has a very useful local anhidrotic action. Salicylic acid is a powerful irritant when inhaled or swallowed in a concentrated form, and even when much diluted it causes pain, nausea and vomiting. When salicin ia taken internally no irritant action occurs, nor is there any antisepsis. Whatever drug of this group be taken, the product absorbed by the blood is almost entirely sodium salicylate. When the salt is taken by the mouth, absorption is extremely rapid, the salt being present in the peripheral blood within ten minutes. Sodium salicylate circulates in the blood unchanged, decom- position occurring in the kidney, and probably in tissues suffering from the Diplococcus rheumaticus of Poynton and Paine. It used to be stated that these drugs are marked cardiac depressants; and the heart being invariably implicated in rheumatic fever, it is supposed that these drugs must be given with great caution. It has now been established that, provided the kidneys be healthy, natural salicylic acid, sodium salicylate prepared from the natural acid, and salicin, are not cardiac depressants. Of the two latter, 300 grains may be given in a dose and ij oz. in twenty-four hours, without any toxic symptoms. The artificial acid and its salt contain ortho-, para- and meta-cresotic acids, which are cardiac depressants. The vegetable product — which is extremely expensive — must be prescribed or the synthetic product guaranteed ' physiologically pure," i.e. tested upon animals and found to have no toxic properties. Salicylates are the next safest to quinine of all antipyretics, whilst being much more powerful in all febrile states except malaria. Sodium sali- cylate escapes from the blood mainly by the kidneys, in the secretion of which sodium salicylate and salicyluric acid can be detected within fifteen minutes of its administration. After large doses haematuria has been observed in a few cases. The rapid excretion by the kidneys is one of the cardinal conditions of safety, and also necessitates the very frequent administration of the drug. Therapeutics. — Salicylic acid is used externally for the removal of corns and similar epidermic thickenings. It causes some pain, so that a sedative should be added. A common formula has II parts of the acid, 3 of extract of Indian hemp, and 86 of collodion. There is probably no better remedy for corns. Perspiration of the feet cannot be attacked locally with more success than by a powder consisting of salicylic acid, starch and chalk. These drugs are specific for acute rheumatism (rheumatic fever). The drug is not a true specific, as quinine is for malaria , since it rarely, if ever, prevents the cardiac damage usually done by rheu- matic fever; but it entirely removes the agonizing pain, shortly after its administration, and, an hour or two later, brings down the temperature to normal. In thirty-six hours no symptoms are left. If the drug be now discontinued, they will return in over ox>% of cases. In acute gonorrhoeal arthritis, simulating rheumatic fever, salicylates are useless. They may thus afford a means of diagnosis. In rheumatic hyperpyrexia, where the poison has attacked the central nervous system, salicylates almost always fail. The mode of their administration in rheumatic fever is of the utmost importance. At first 20 grains of sodium salicylate should be given every hour: the interval being doubled as soon as the pain disappears, and extended to three hours when the temperature becomes normal. The patient should continue to take about 100 grains a day for at least a fortnight after he is apparently convalescent, otherwise a recrudescence is very probable. Salicylate of soda may occasionally be of use in cases of gallstone, owing to its action on the bile. It often relieves neuralgia, especially when combined with caffeine and quinine. Salicylism, or salicylic poisoning, occurs in a good many cases of the use of these drugs. Provided the kidneys be healthy, the symptoms may be ignored. If nephritis be present, it may be seriously aggravated, and the drug must therefore be withheld. The headache, deafness, ringing in the ears and even delirium of salicylism, are practically identical with the symptoms of cinchonism. The drug must be at once withheld if haemorrhages (subcutaneous, retinal, &c.) are observed. As in the case of quinine, the administra- tion of small doses of hydrobromic acid often relieve the milder symptoms. SALIERI, ANTONIO (1750-1823), Italian composer, was born at Legnano, on the igth of August 1750. His father was a mer- chant who died a bankrupt. Through the family of Mocenigo he obtained free admission to the choir school of St Mark's, Venice. In 1766 he was taken to Vienna by F. L. Gassmann, who introduced him to the emperor Joseph. His first opera, Le Donne letter ate, was produced at the Burg-Theater in 1770. Others followed in rapid succession, and his Armida (1771) was a triumphant success. On Gassmann's death in 1774, he became Kapellmeister and, on the death of Bonno in 1788, H of kapellmeister. He held his offices for fifty years, though he made frequent visits to Italy and Paris, and composed music for many European theatres. His chefd'osuvre was Tarare (afterwards called Axur, re d'Ormus), a work which was preferred by the public of Vienna to Mozart's Don Giovanni. It was first produced at Vienna on the 8th of June 1787, and was revived at Leipzig in 1846, though only for a single representation. His last opera was Die Neger, produced in 1804. After this he devoted himself to the composition of church music, for which he had a very decided talent. Salieri lived on friendly terms with Haydn, but was a bitter enemy to Mozart, whose death he was suspected of having produced by poison; but no evidence was ever forthcoming to give colour to the accusation. He retired from office on his full salary in 1824, and died at Vienna on the 7th of May 1825. Salieri gave lessons in composition to Cherubim and to Beethoven, who dedicated to him his " Three Sonatas for Pianoforte and Violin," See also Albert von Hermann, Antonio Salieri, eine Studie (1897); J. F. Edler von Mosel, Ober das Leben und die Werke des Antonio Salieri (Vienna, 1827). SALII, the " dancers," an old Italian priesthood, said to have been instituted by Numa for the service of Mars, although later tradition derived them from Greece. They were originally twelve in number, called Salii Palatini to distinguish them from SALIMBENE— SALISBURY, EARLS OF a second college of twelve, Salii Agonales or Collini, said to have been added by Tullus Hostilius; the Palatini were consecrated to Mars, the Collini to Quirinus. All the members were patricians, vacancies being filled by co-optation from young men whose parents were both living; membership was for life, subject to certain exceptions. The officials of the college were the magister, the praesul, and the vates (the leaders in dance and song). Each college had the care of twelve sacred shields called ancilia. According to the story, during the reign of Numa a small oval shield fell from heaven, and Numa, in order to prevent its being stolen, had eleven others made exactly like it. They were the work of a smith named Mamurius Veturius, probably identical with the god Mamers (Mars) himself. These twelve shields (amongst which was the original one) were in charge of the Salii Palatini. The greater part of March (the birth-month of Mars), beginning from the 1st, on which day the ancile was said to have fallen from heaven and the campaigning season began, was devoted to various ceremonies con- nected with the Salii. On the 1st, they marched in procession through the city, dressed in an embroidered tunic, a brazen breast- plate and a peaked cap ; each carried a sword by his side and a short staff in his right hand, with which the shield, borne on the left arm, was struck from time to time. A halt was made at the altars and temples, where the Salii, singing a special chant, danced a war dance. Every day the procession stopped at certain stations (mansiones), where the shields were deposited for the night, and the Salii partook of a banquet (see Horace, Odes, i. 37. 2). On the next day the pro- cession passed on to another mansio; this continued till the 24th, when the shields were replaced in their sacrarium. During this period the Salii took part in certain other festivities: the Equirria (Ecurria) on the I4th, a chariot race in honour of Mars on the Campus Martius (in later times called Mamuralia, in honour of Mamurius), at which a skin was beaten with staves in imitation of hammering; the Quinquatrus on the igth, a one-day festival, at which the shields were cleansed; the Tubilustrium on the 23rd, when the trumpets of the priests were purified. On the igth of October, at the Armi- lustrium or purification of arms, the ancilia were again brought out and then put away for the winter. The old chant of the Salii, called axamenta, was written in the old Saturnian metre, in language so archaic that even the priests themselves could hardly understand it. See Quintilian, Instil, i. 6. 40; also J. Wordsworth, Fragments and Specimens of Early Latin (1874). The best account of the Salii generally will be found in Marquardt, Romische Staatsverwaltimg, iii. (1885) pp. 427-438- SALIMBENE, or more usually SALIMBENE OF PARMA (1221- c. 1290), the name taken by the Italian writer, Ognibene di Guido di Adamo. The son of a crusader, Gui di Adamo, and born at Parma on the pth of October 1221, Ognibene entered the order of the Minorites in 1238, and was known as brother Salimbene. He passed some years in Pisa and other Italian towns; then in 1247 he was sent to Lyons, and from Lyons he went to Paris, returning through France to Genoa, where he became a priest in 1249. From 1249 to 1256 he resided at Ferrara, engaged in writing and in copying manuscripts, but later he found time to move from place to place. His concluding years were mainly spent in monastic retirement in Italy, and he died soon after 1 288. Salimbene was acquainted with many of the important personages of his day, including the emperor Frederick II., the French king St Louis and Pope Innocent IV. ; and his Chronicon, written after 1 281, is a work of unusual value. This covers the period 1167-1287. Salimbene is a very discursive and a very personal writer, but he gives a remarkably vivid picture of life in France and Italy during the I3th century. The manuscript of the chronicle was found during the i8th century, and passed into the Vatican library, where it now remains. The part of the Chronicon dealing with the period between 1212 and 1287 was edited by A. Bertani and published at Parma in 1857. This edition, however, is very defective, but an excellent and more complete one has been edited by O. Holder- Egger, and is printed in Band xxxii. of the Monumenta Germaniae kistorica. Scriptores (Hanover, 1905). See U. Balzani, Le Croniche italiane net media evo (Milan, 1884) ; L. Clexlat, De fratre Salimbene et de ejus chronicae aucloritate (Paris, 1878); E. Michael, Salimbene und seine Chronik (Innsbruck, 1889); A. Molinier, Les Sources de I'histoire de France, tome iii. (1903); D. W. Duthie, The Case of Sir John Fastolf and other Historical Studies (1907); G. G. Coulton, From St Francis to Dante (1906). SALINA, a city and the county-seat of Saline county, Kansas, U.S.A., on the Smoky Hill river, near the mouth of the Saline river, about 100 m. W. of Topeka. Pop. (1905) 7829; (1910) 9688. It is served by the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe, the Chicago, Rock Island & Pacific, the Missouri Pacific and the Union Pacific railways. Salina has a Carnegie library, and is the seat of Kansas Wesleyan University (Methodist Episcopal; chartered in 1885, opened in 1886) and of St John's Military School (Protestant Episcopal) . The city is the see of a Protestant Episcopal bishop. Salina is the central market of a fertile farming region. Power is furnished by the river, and among the manu- factures are flour, agricultural implements, foundry products and carriages. The first settlement on the site of Salina was made in 1857. Its first railway, the Union Pacific, came through in 1867. Salina was first chartered as a city in 1870. SALINA CRUZ, a seaport of Mexico, in the state of Oaxaca, at the southern terminus of the Tehuantepec National Railway. It is situated near the mouth of the Tehuantepec river, on the open coast of the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, and has no natural harbour. There was only a small Indian village here before Salina Cruz was chosen as the Pacific terminus of the railway. Since then a modern town has been laid out and built on adjacent higher ground. The new port was opened to traffic in 1907 and in 1909 its population was largely composed of labourers. A costly artificial harbour has been built by the Mexican govern- ment to accommodate the traffic of the Tehuantepec railway. It is formed by the construction of two breakwaters, the western 3260 ft. and the eastern 1900 ft. long, which curve toward each other at their outer extremities and leave an entrance 635 ft. wide. The enclosed space is divided into an outer and inner harbour by a double line of quays wide enough to carry six great warehouses with electric cranes on both sides and a number of railway tracks. Connected with the new port works is one of the largest dry docks in the world — 610 ft. long and 89 ft. wide, with a depth of 28 ft. on its sill at low water. The works were planned to handle an immense volume of transcontinental freight, and before they were finished four steamship lines had arranged regular calls at Salina Cruz; this number has since been largely increased. SALINS, a town of eastern France, in the department of Jura, on a branch line of the Paris-Lyon railway. Pop. (1906) 4293. Salins is situated in the narrow valley of the Furieuse, between two fortified hills, while to the north rises Mont Poupet (2798 ft.). The town possesses an interesting Romanesque church (which has been well restored) and an hotel de ville of the i8th century. A Jesuit chapel of the I7th century contains a library (established in 1 593) and a museum. Salins owes its name to its saline waters, used for bathing and drinking. There are also salt workings and gypsum deposits. The territory of Salins, which was enfeoffed in the loth century by the abbey of Saint Maurice in Valais to the counts of M&con, remained in possession of their descendants till 1175. Maurette de Salins, heiress of this dynasty, left the lordship to the house of Vienne, and her granddaughter sold it in 1225 to Hugh IV., duke of Burgundy.who ceded it in 1237 to John of Chalon (d.1267) in exchange for the countship of Chalon-sur-Sa&ne. John's descendants — counts and dukes of Burgundy, emperors and kings of the house of Austria — bore the title of sire de Salins. In 1477 Salins was taken by the French and temporarily made the seat of the parlement of Franche- Comte' by Louis XI. In 1668 and 1674 it was retaken by the French and thenceforward remained in their power. In 1825 the town was almost destroyed by fire. In 1871 it successfully resisted the German troops. SALISBURY, EARLS OF. The title of earl of Salisbury was first created about 1149, when it was conferred on Patrick de Salisbury (sometimes from an early date called in error Patrick Devereux), a descendant of Edward de Salisbury, mentioned in Domesday as vicecomes of Wiltshire. His granddaughter Isabella became countess of Salisbury suojure on the death of her father, William the 2nd earl, without male heirs, in 1196, and the title was assumed by her husband, William de Longespee (d. 1226), illegitimate son of King Henry II. possibly by Rosamond Clifford (" The fair Rosamond "). Isabella survived her husband, and outlived both her son and grandson, both called Sir William de Longespee, and on her death in 1261 her great-granddaughter Margaret (d. 1310), wife of Henry de Lacy, earl of Lincoln, probably became suojure countess of Salisbury; she transmitted the title to her daughter Alice, who married Thomas Plantagenet, earl of Lancaster. Lancaster having been attainted and beheaded in 1322, the countess made a surrender of her lands SALISBURY, SRD MARQUESS OF and titles to Edward II., the earldom thus lapsing to the crown. The earldom of Salisbury was granted in 1337 by Edward III. to William de Montacute, Lord Montacute (1301-1344), in whose family it remained till 1400, when John, 3rd earl of this line, was attainted and his titles forfeited. His son Thomas (1388- 1428) was restored in blood in 1421; and Thomas's daughter and heiress, Alice, married Sir Richard Neville (1400-1460), a younger son of Ralph Neville, ist earl of Westmorland and a grandson of John of Gaunt, who sat in parliament in right of his wife as earl of Salisbury; he was succeeded by his son Richard, on whose death without male issue in 1471 the earldom fell into abeyance. George Plantagenet, duke of Clarence, brother of Edward IV., who married Richard's daughter and co-heiress, Isabel, became by a separate creation earl of Salisbury in I47>, but by his attainder in 1478 this title was forfeited, and immedi- ately afterwards was granted to Edward Plantagenet, eldest son of Richard duke of Gloucester, afterwards Richard III., on whose death in 1484 it became extinct. Richard III.'s queen, Anne, was a sister of the above-mentioned Isabel, duchess of Clarence, and co-heiress with her of Richard Neville, earl of Salisbury. On the death of Queen Anne in 1485 the abeyance of the older creation terminated, Edward Plantagenet, eldest son of George duke of Clarence by Isabel Neville, becoming earl of Salisbury as successor to his mother's right. He was attainted in 1504, five years after his execution, but the earldom then forfeited was restored to his sister Margaret (1474-1541), widow of Sir Richard Pole, in 1513. This lady was also attainted, with forfeiture of her titles, in 1539. Sir Robert Cecil, second son of the ist Lord Burghley (q.v.), was created earl of Salisbury (1605), having no connexion in blood with the former holders of the title. (See SALISBURY, ROBERT CECIL, IST EARL OF.) In his family the earldom has remained till the present day, the 7th earl of the line having been created marquess of Salisbury in 1 789. See G. E. C., Complete Peerage, vol. vii. (1896). SALISBURY, ROBERT ARTHUR TALBOT GASCOYNE- CECIL, 3RD MARQUESS OF (1830-1903), British statesman, second son of James, 2nd marquess, by his first wife, Frances Mary Gascoyne, was born at Hatfield on the 3rd of February 1830, and was educated at Eton and Christ Church, Oxford, where he took his degree in 1850. At Oxford he was an active member of the Union Debating Society. The first few years after leaving the university were spent by Lord Robert Cecil (as he then was) in travel, as far afield as New Zealand; but in 1853 he was returned unopposed to the House of Commons as Conservative member for Stamford, being elected in the same year a fellow of All Souls. He made his maiden speech in Parliament on the 7th of April 1854, in opposition to Lord John Russell's Oxford University Bill. The speech- was marked by scepticism as to the utility of reforms, and Lord Robert prophesied that if the wishes of founders were disregarded, nobody would in future care to found anything. In 1857 he Burly appeared as the author of his first Bill — for establishing year* la the voting-paper system at parliamentary elections; and in the same year he married Georgina Caroline, daughter of Sir Edward Holt Alderson, a baron of the Court of Exchequer, a large share of whose great intellectual abilities she inherited. Lord Robert Cecil continued to be active not only in politics, but, for several years, in journalism, the income he earned by his pen being then a matter of pecuniary importance to him. One of his contemporaries at Oxford had been Thomas Hamber of Oriel, who became editor of the Standard, and during these years Cecil was an occasional contributor of " leaders " to that paper. He also contributed to the Saturday Review, founded in 1855 by his brother-in-law Beresford Hope, and edited by his friend Douglas Cook; not infrequently he wrote for the Quarterly (where, in 1867, he was to publish his famous article on " the Conservative Surrender ") ; and in 1858 he contributed to Oxford Essays a paper on " The Theories of Parliamentary Reform, "giving expression to the more intellectual and aristocratic antagonism to doctrinaire Liberal views on the Parlia- ment, subject, while admitting the existence of many anomalies in the existing electoral system. In February of the next year, when Disraeli introduced his Reform Bill with its " fancy franchises," the member for Stamford was prominent among its critics from the Tory point of view. During the seven years that followed Lord Robert was always ready to defend the Church, or the higher interests of Conservatism and property; and his speeches then, not less than later, showed a caustic quality and a tendency to what became known as " blazing indiscretions." For example, when the repeal of the paper duty was being discussed in 1861, he asked whether it " could be maintained that a person of any education could learn anything worth knowing from a penny paper " — a question the answer to which has been given by the powerful, highly organized, and admirable Conservative penny press of a subsequent day. A little later he declared the proceed- ings of the Government " more worthy of an attorney than of a statesman "; and on being rebuked, apologized — to the attorneys. He also charged Lord John Russell with adopting " a sort of tariff of insolence " in his dealings with foreign Powers, strong and weak. It was not, however, till the death of Palmerston and the removal of Lord John Russell to the House of Lords had brought Gladstone to the front that Lord Robert Cecil — who became Lord Cranborne by the death of his elder brother on the I4th of June 1 865 — began to be accepted the as a politician of the first rank. His emergence Franchise coincided with the opening of the new area in British politics, ushered in by the practical steps taken to extend the parliamentary franchise. On the I2th of March 1866 Gladstone brought forward his measure to establish a £7 franchise in boroughs and a £14 franchise in counties, which were calculated to add 400,000 voters to the existing lists. Lord Cranborne met the Bill with a persistent opposition, his rigorous logic and merciless hostility to clap-trap tending strongly to reinforce the impassioned eloquence of Robert Lowe. But though he attacked the Government Bill both in principle and detail, he did not absolutely commit himself to a position of hostility to Reform of every kind; and on the defeat of Glad- stone's Ministry no surprise was expressed at his joining the Cabinet of Lord Derby as secretary of state for India, even when it became known that a settlement of the Reform question was part of the Tory programme. The early months of the new Government's tenure were marked by the incident of the Hyde Park riots; and if there had been members of the Cabinet and party who believed up to that time that the Reform question was not urgent the action of the Reform League and the London populace forced them to a different conclusion. On the nth of February Disraeli informed the House of Commons that the Government intended to ask its assent to a series of thirteen resolutions; but when, on the 26th of February, the Liberal leaders demanded that the Government should produce a Bill, Disraeli at once consented to do so. The introduction of a Bill was, however, delayed by the resignation of Lord Cranborne, General Peel and Lord Carnarvon. The Cabinet had been considering two alternative measures, widely different in kind and extent, and the final decision between the two was taken in ten minutes (whence the nickname of the " Ten Minutes Bill ") at an informal gathering of the Cabinet held just before Derby was engaged to address a general meeting of the party. At a Cabinet council held on the 23rd of February measure A had been agreed upon, the three doubtful ministers having been persuaded that the checks and safeguards provided were sufficient; in the interval between Saturday and Monday they had come to the conclusion that the checks were inadequate; on Monday morning they had gone to Lord Derby and told him so; at two o'clock the rest of the Cabinet, hastily 'summoned, had been informed of the new situation, and had there and then, before the meeting at half-past two, agreed, in order to retain their three colleagues, to throw over measure A, and to present measure B to the country as the fruit of their matured and unanimous wisdom. Derby at the meeting, and Disraeli a few hours later in the House of Commons, explained their new SALISBURY, SRD MARQUESS OF 73 measure — a measure based upon a £6 franchise; but their own side did not like it, the Opposition were furious, and the moral sense of the country was revolted by the undisguised adoption of almost the very Bill which the Conservatives had refused to accept from their opponents only a year before. The result was that the Government reverted to measure A, and the three ministers again handed in their resignations. In the . debate on the third reading of the Bill, when its passage through the House of Commons without a division was assured, Lord Cranborne showed with caustic rhetoric how the " precautions, guarantees, and securities " with which the Bill had bristled on its second reading had been dropped one after another at the bidding of Gladstone. In countries where politics are conducted on any other than the give-and-take principles in vogue in England, such a breach as that which occurred in 1867 between Lord Cranborne * , and his former colleagues, especially Disraeli, would have been beyond repair. But Cranborne, though an aristocrat both by birth and by conviction, was not impracticable; moreover, Disraeli, who had himself risen to eminence through invective, admired rather than resented that gift in others; and their common opposition to Gladstone was certain to reunite the two colleagues. In the session of 1868 Gladstone announced that he meant to take up the Irish question, and to deal especially with the celebrated " Upas tree," of which the first branch was the Established Church. By way of giving lull notice to the electorate, he brought in a series of resolutions on this question; and though the attitude adopted by the official Conservatives towards them was not one of serious antagonism, Lord Cranborne vigorously attacked them. This was his last speech in the House of Commons, for on the i zth of April his father died, and he became 3rd marquess of Salisbury. In the House of Lords the new Lord Salisbury's style of eloquence — terse, incisive and wholly free from false ornament — found an even more appreciative audience than it had met with in the House of Commons. The questions with which he was first called upon to deal were questions in which his interest was keen — the recommendations of the Ritual Commission and, some time kter, the Irish Church Suspensory Bill. Lord Salisbury's argu- ment was that the last session of an expiring parliament was not the time in which so grave a matter as the Irish Church Establishment should be judged or prejudged; that a Suspensory Bill involved the question of disestablishment; and that such a principle could not be accepted by the Lords until the country had pronounced decisively in its favour. Even then there were those who raised the cry that the only business of the House of Lords was to register the decisions of the Commons, and that if they refused to do so it was at their peril. Lord Salisbury met this cry boldly and firmly: — " When the opinion of your countrymen has declared itself, and you sec that their convictions — their firm, deliberate, sustained convic- tions— are in favour of any course, I do not for a moment deny that it is your duty to yield." In the very next session Lord Salisbury was called upon to put his view into practice, and his influence went far to persuade the peers to pass the Irish Church Disestablishment Bill. In his opinion the general election of the autumn of 1868 had been fought on this question; his friends had lost, and there was nothing for them to do but to bow to the necessities of the situa- tion. The story of his conduct in the matter has been told in some fulness in the Life of Archbishop Tail, with whom Salisbury acted, and who throughout those critical weeks played a most important part as mediator between the two extreme parties — those of Lord Cairns (representing Ulster) and Gladstone. October 1869 saw the death of the old Lord Derby, who was still the titular leader of his party; and he was succeeded as leader of the House of Lords by Cairns. For the dignified post of chancellor of the university of Oxford Convocation unanimously chose as Derby's successor the marquess of Salisbury. Derby had translated the Iliad very well, but his successor was far more able to sympathize with the academic mind and temper. He was at heart a student, and found his best satisfaction in scientific research and in scientific speculation; while still a young man he had made useful contributions to the investigation of the flora of Hertfordshire, and at Hatfield he had his own laboratory, where he was able to satisfy his interest in chemical and electrical research. As regards his connexion with Oxford may be men- tioned in particular his appointment, in 1877, of a second University Commission, and his appearance, in September 1894, in the Sheldonian Theatre as president of the British Association. It is not necessary to dwell at any length upon the part taken by Lord Salisbury between 1869 and 1873 in respect of the other great political measures of Gladstone's Government — the Irish Land Act, the Act Abolishing Purchase in the Army, Forster's Education Act, &c. Nor does of 1874. his attitude towards the Franco-German War of 1870- 71 call for any remark; a British leader of Opposition is bound, even more than a minister, to preserve a discreet silence on such occasions. But early in 1874 came the dissolution, suddenly announced in Gladstone's famous Greenwich letter, with the promise of the abolition of the income-tax. For the first time since 1841 the Conservatives found themselves in office with a large majority in the House of Commons. In Disraeli's new Cabinet in 1874 Salisbury accepted his old position at the India Office. The first task with which the new secretary of state had to deal was one of those periodical famines which are the great scourge of India; he supported the action of Lord Northbrook, the viceroy, and refused to interfere with private trade by prohibiting the export of grain. This attitude was amply justified, and Lord Salisbury presently declared that the action of the Government had given so much confidence to private traders that, by their means, " grain was pouring into the dis- tressed districts at a greater rate than that which was being carried by the public agency, the amount reaching nearly 200x3 tons a day." The Public Worship Regulation Bill of 1874 was the occasion of a famous passage of arms between Salisbury and his chief. The Commons had inserted an amendment which, on consideration by the Lords, Salisbury opposed, with the remark that it was not for the peers to attend to the " bluster " of the lower House merely because a small majority there had passed the amendment. The new clause was accordingly rejected, and the Commons eventually accepted the situation; but Disraeli, banteringly criticizing Salisbury's use of the word " bluster," alluded to him as " a man who does not measure his phrases. He is one who is a great master of gibes and flouts and jeers." From the middle of 1876 the Government was occupied with foreign affairs. In regard to the stages of Eastern fever through which the nation passed between the occurrence of the Bulgarian "atrocities" and the signature of ™e the Treaty of Berlin, the part played by Salisbury qulsttoa. was considerable. The excesses of the Bashi-Bazouks took place in the early summer of 1876, and were recorded in long and highly-coloured despatches to English newspapers; presently there followed Gladstone's pamphlet on Bulgarian Horrors, his speech on Blackheath and his enunciation of a " bag-and-baggage " policy towards Turkey. The autumn went by, Servia and Montenegro declared war upon Turkey and were in imminent danger of something like extinction. On the 3ist of October Russia demanded an armistice, which Turkey granted; and Great Britain immediately proposed a conference at Constantinople, at which the powers should endeavour to make arrangements with Turkey for a genera) pacification of her provinces and of the inflammable communities adjoining. At this conference Great Britain was represented by Lord Salisbury. It met early in December, taking for its basis the British terms, namely, the status quo ante in Servia and Montenegro; a self-denying ordinance on the part of all the powers; and the independence and territorial integrity of the Ottoman empire, together with large administrative reforms assured by guarantees. General Ignatieff , the Russian ambassador, was effusively friendly with the British envoy; but though the philo-Turkish party in England professed themselves scandalized, Salisbury made no improper concessions to Russia, and departed in no way from the agreed policy of the British 74 SALISBURY, SRD MARQUESS OF Cabinet. On the zoth of January the conference broke up, Turkey having declared its recommendations inadmissible; and Europe withdrew to await the inevitable declaration of war. Very early in the course of that war the intentions of Great Britain were clearly indicated in a despatch of Lord Derby to the British representative at St Petersburg, which announced that so long as the struggle concerned Turkish interests alone Great Britain would be neutral, but that such matters as Egypt, the Suez Canal, the regulations affecting the passage of the Dardanelles, and the possession of Constantinople itself would be regarded as matters to which she could not be indifferent. For some nine months none of these British interests appeared to be threatened, nor had Lord Salisbury's own department to concern itself very directly with the progress of the belligerents. Once or twice, indeed, the Indian secretary committed himself to statements which laid him open to a good deal of attack, as when he rebuked an alarmist by bidding him study the Central Asian question " in large maps. " But with the advance of Russia through Bulgaria and across the Balkans, British anxiety grew. In mid-December explanations were asked from the Russian Government as to their intentions with regard to Constantinople. On the 23rd of January the Cabinet ordered the fleet to sail to the Dardanelles. Lord Carnarvon resigned, and Lord Derby handed in his resignation, but withdrew it. The Treaty of San Stefano was signed on the 3rd of March; and three weeks later, when its full text became known, the Succeed* Cabinet decided upon measures which finally induced Lord Derby Lord Derby, at the end of the month, to retire from "latter" the F^'S11 Office, his place being immediately filled by Lord Salisbury. The new foreign secretary at once issued the famous " Salisbury circular" to the British representatives abroad, which appeared in the newspapers on the 2nd of April. This elaborate and dignified State paper was at once a clear exposition of British policy, and practically an invitation to Russia to reopen the negotiations for a European congress. These negotiations, indeed, had been proceeding for several weeks past; but Russia having declared that she would only discuss such points as she pleased, the British Cabinet had withdrawn, and the matter for the time was at an end. The bulk of the document consisted of an examination of the Treaty of San Stefano and its probable effects, Lord Salisbury justifying such an examination on the ground that as the position of Turkey and the other countries affected had been settled by Europe in the Treaty of Paris in 1856, the powers which signed t hat treaty had the right and the duty to see that no modifications of it should be made without their consent. The effect of the circular was great and immediate. At home the Conservatives were encouraged, and many moderate Liberals rallied to the Eastern policy of the Govern- COO//YM. ment. Abroad it seemed as if the era of divided councils was over, and the Russian Government promptly recognized that the circular meant either a congress or war with Great Britain. For the latter alternative it was by no means prepared, and very soon negotiations were reopened, which led to the meeting of the congress at Berlin on the i3th of June. The history of that famous gathering and of its results is narrated under EUROPE. Lord Beaconsfield on two or three subsequent occasions referred to the important part that his colleague had played in the negotiations, and he was not using merely the language of politeness. Rumours had appeared in the London press as to a supposed Anglo-Russian agreement that had been signed between Salisbury and the Russian ambassador, Count Shuvaloff, and these rumours or statements were described by the foreign secretary in the House of Lords, just before he left for Berlin, as " wholly unauthentic." But on the I4th of June what purported to be the full text of the agreement was published by the Globe newspaper through a certain Charles Marvin, at that time employed in occasional transcribing work at the Foreign Office, and afterwards known by some strongly anti-Russian books on the Central Asian question. Besides the general inconvenience of the disclosure, the agreement, which stipulated that Batum and Kars might be annexed by Russia, made it impossible for the congress to insist upon Russia entirely withdrawing her claim to Batum, though at the time of the meeting of the congress it was known to some of the negotiators that she was not unwilling to do so. In one respect Salisbury's action at the congress was unsuccessful. Much as he disliked Gladstone's sentimentalism, he was not without a certain sentimentalism of his own, and at the Berlin Congress this took the form of an unexpected and, as it happened, useless pushing of the claims of Greece. But in the main Salisbury must be held to deserve, almost equally with his great colleague, the credit for the Berlin settlement. Great, however, as was the work done at Berlin, and marked the relief to all Europe which was caused by the signing of the treaty, much work, and of no pleasant kind, remained for the British Foreign Office and for the Indian Government before the Beaconsfield parliament ended and the Government had to render up its accounts to the nation. Russia, foreseeing a possible war with Great Britain, had during the spring of 1878 redoubled her activity in Central Asia, and, almost at the very time that the treaty was being signed, her mission was received at Kabul by the Amir Sher Ali. Out of the Amir's refusal to receive a counterbalancing British mission there grew the Afghan War; and though he had ceased to control the India Office, Salisbury was naturally held responsible for some of the preliminary steps which, in the judgment of the Opposition, had led to these hostilities. But the Liberals entirely failed to fix upon Salisbury the blame for a series of events which was generally seen to be inevitable. A defence of the foreign policy of the Government during the year which followed the Berlin Treaty was made by Salisbury in a speech at Manchester (October 1879), which had a great effect throughout Europe. In it he justified the occupation of Cyprus, and approved the beginnings of a league of central Europe for preserving peace. In the spring of 1880 the general election overthrew Beacons- field's Government and replaced Gladstone in power, and the country entered upon five eventful years, which were Leader to see the consolidation of the Parnellite party, the of Con- reign of outrage in Ireland, disasters in Zululand and *crv««ve the Transvaal, war in Egypt, a succession of costly mistakes in the Sudan, and the final collapse of Gladstone's Government on a trifling Budget question. The defeat of 1880 greatly depressed Beaconsfield, who till then had really believed in that " hyperborean " theory upon which he had acted in 1867 — the theory that beyond and below the region of democratic storm and violence was to be found a region of peaceful conser- vatism and of a dislike of change. After the rude awakening of April 1880 Beaconsfield seems to have lost heart and hope, and to have ceased to believe that wealth, birth and education would count for much in future in England. Salisbury, who on Beacons- field's death a year later was chosen, after the claims of Cairns had been withdrawn, as leader of the Conservative peers (Sir Stafford Northcote continuing to lead the Opposition in the lower House), was not so disposed to counsels of despair. After the Conservative reaction had come in 1886, he was often taunted with pessimism as regards the results, and he certainly spoke on more than one occasion in a way which appeared to justify the caricatures which appeared of him in the Radical press in his character of Hamlet; but in the days of Liberal ascendancy Salisbury was confident that the tide would turn. We may pass briefly over the years of Opposition between 1880 and 1885; the only policy that could then wisely be followed by the Con- servative leaders was that of giving their opponents sufficient rope. In 1884 a new Reform Bill was introduced, extending household suffrage to the counties; this was met in the Lords by a resolution, moved by Cairns, that the peers could not pass it unaccompanied by a Redistribution Bill. The Government, therefore, withdrew their measure. In the summer and autumn there was a good deal of agitation; but in November a redistribu- tion scheme was settled between the leaders of both parties, and the Bill passed. When, in the summer of 1885, Gladstone resigned, it became necessary for the country to know whether Salisbury or Northcote was the real Conservative leader; and SALISBURY, 3RD MARQUESS OF 75 Minister, ISSS. the Queen settled the matter by at once sending for Lord Salis- bury, who became prime minister for the first time in 1885. The " Forwards " among the Conservatives, headed by Lord Randolph Churchill, brought so much pressure to bear that Northcote was induced to enter the House of Lords as earl of Iddesleigh, while Sir Michael Hicks Beach was made leader of the House of Commons, Lord Randolph Churchill secretary for India, and Mr Arthur Balfour president of the Local Government Board. The new Government had only to prepare for the general election in the autumn. The ministerial programme was put forward by Salisbury on the 7th of October in an important speech addressed to the Union of Conservative Associations assembled at Newport, in Monmouthshire; and in this he outlined large reforms in local government, poured scorn upon Mr Chamberlain's Radical policy of " three acres and a cow," but promised cheap land transfer, and opposed the disestablishment of the Church as a matter of life or death to the Conservative party. In this Lord Salisbury was declaring war against what seemed to be the danger should Mr Chamberlain's " unauthorized programme " succeed; while the comparative slightness of his references to Ireland showed that he had no more suspicion than anybody else of the event which was about to change the whole face of British politics, to break up the Liberal party and to change the most formidable of the advanced Radicals into an ally and a colleague. The general election took place, and there were returned to parliament 335 Liberals, 249 Conservatives and 86 Home Rulers; so that if the last two parties had combined, they would have exactly tied with the Liberals. The Conservative Government met parliament, and after a short time were put into a minority of 79 on a Radical land motion, brought in by Mr Chamberlain's henchman, Mr Jesse Collings. Mr Gladstone's Unionism- ret-urn to office, and his announcement of a Bill giving Prime ' a separate parliament to Ireland, were quickly followed Minister, by the secession of the Unionist Liberals; the defeat of the Bill; an appeal to the country; and the return of the Unionist party to power with a majority of 1 18. Salisbury at once offered to make way for Lord Hartington, but the suggestion that the latter should form a Government was declined; and the Conservatives took office alone, with an Irish policy which might be summed up, perhaps, in Salisbury's words as " twenty years of resolute government." For a few months, until just before his sudden death on the I2th of January 1887, Lord Iddesleigh was foreign secretary; but Salisbury, who meantime had held the post of lord privy seal, then returned to the Foreign Office. Meanwhile the increasing friction between him and Lord Randolph Churchill, who, amid many qualms on the part of more old-fashioned Conservatives, had become chancellor of the exchequer and leader of the House of Commons, had led to the latter's resignation, which, to his own surprise, was accepted; and from that date Salisbury's effective primacy in his own party was unchallenged. Only the general lines of Salisbury's later political career need here be sketched. As a consequence of the practical 1886-1902. m°nopoly of political power enjoyed by the Unionist party after the Liberal disruption of 1886 — for even in the years 1892-1895 the situation was dominated by the permanent Unionist majority in the House of Lords — Salisbury's position became unique. These were the long-looked-for days of Conservative reaction, of which he had never despaired. The situation was complicated, so far as Salisbury personally was concerned, by the coalition with the Liberal Unionists, which was confirmed in 1895 by the inclusion of the duke of Devonshire, Mr Chamberlain, and other Liberal Unionists in the Cabinet. But though it appeared anomalous that old antagonists like Lord Salisbury and Mr Chamberlain should be working together in the same ministry, the prime minister's position was such that he could disregard a superficial criticism which paid too little heed to his political faculty and his patriotic regard for the requirements of the situation. Moreover, the practical work of reconciling Conservative traditions with domestic reform depended rather on Salisbury's nephew, Mr Balfour, who led the House of Commons, than on Salisbury, who devoted himself almost entirely to foreign affairs. The new Conservative move- ment, moreover, in the country at large, was, in any case, of a more constructive type than Salisbury himself was best fitted to lead, and he was not the real source of the political inspiration even of the Conservative wing of the Unionist party during this period. He began to stand to some extent outside party and above it, a moderator with a keenly analytic and rather sceptical mind, but still the recognized representative of the British empire in the councils of the world, and the trusted adviser of his sovereign. Though himself the last man to be selected as the type of a democratic politician — for his references to extensions of popular government, even when made by his own party, were full of mild contempt — Salisbury gradually acquired a higher place in public opinion than that occupied by any contemporary statesman. His speeches — which, though carelessly composed, continued to blaze on occasion with their old fire and their some- what mordant cynicism — were weightier in tone^ and became European events. Without the genius of Disraeli or the personal magnetism of Gladstone, he yet inspired the British public with a quiet confidence that under him things would not go far wrong, and that he would not act rashly or unworthily of his country. Even political opponents came to look on his cautious and balanced conservatism, and his intellectual aloofness from interested motives or vulgar ambition, as standing between them and something more distasteful. Moreover, in the matter of foreign affairs his weight was supreme. He had lived to become, as was indeed generally recognized, the most experienced working diplomatist in Europe. His position in this respect was shown in nothing better than in his superiority to criticism. In foreign affairs many among his own party regarded him as too much inclined to " split the difference " and to make " grace- ful concessions " — as in the case of the cession of Heligoland to Germany — in which it was complained that Great Britain got the worst of the bargain. But though occasionally, as in the with- drawal of British ships from Port Arthur in 1898, such criticism became acute, the plain fact of the preservation of European peace, often in difficult circumstances, reconciled the public to his conduct of affairs. His patience frequently justified itself, notably in the case of British relations with the United States, which were for a moment threatened by President Cleveland's message concerning Venezuela in 1895. And though his loyalty to the European Concert in connexion with Turkey's dealings with Armenia and Crete in 1895-1898 proved irritatingly in- effectual— the pace of the concert, as Lord Salisbury explained, being rather like that of a steam-roller- — no alternative policy could be contemplated as feasible in any other statesman's hands. Salisbury's personal view of the new situation created by the methods of the sultan of Turkey was indicated not only by a solemn and unusual public warning addressed to the sultan in a speech at Brighton, but also by his famous remark that in the Crimean War Great Britain had " put her money on the wrong horse. " Among his most important strokes of diplomacy was the Anglo-German agreement of 1890, delimiting the British and German spheres of influence in Africa. The South African question from 1896 onwards was a matter for the Colonial Office, and Salisbury left it in Mr Chamberlain's hands. A peer premier must inevitably leave many of the real problems of democratic government to his colleagues in the House of Commons. In the Upper House Lord Salisbury was paramount. Yet while vigorously opposing the Radical agitation for the abolition of the House of Lords, he never interposed a non possumus to schemes of reform. He was always willing to consider plans for its improvement, and in May 1888 himself introduced a bill for reforming it and creating life peers; but he warned reformers that the only result must be to make the House stronger. To abolish it, on the other hand, would be to take away a necessary safeguard for protecting " Philip drunk " by an appeal to " Philip sober. " Lord Salisbury suffered a severe loss by the death in 1900 of his wife, whose influence with her husband had been great, as her devotion had been unswerving. Her protracted illness was 76 SALISBURY, IST EARL OF one among several causes, including his own occasional ill-health, which after 1895 made him leave as much as possible of the work of political leadership to his principal colleagues — Mr Arthur Balfour more than once acting as foreign secretary for several weeks while his uncle stayed abroad. But for some years it was felt that his attempt to be both prime minister and foreign secretary was a mistake; and after the election of 1900 Salisbury handed over the seals of the foreign office to Lord Lansdowne, remaining himself at the head of the government as lord privy seal. In 1902, upon the conclusion of peace in South Africa, he felt that the time had come to retire from office altogether; and on the nth of July his resignation was accepted by the king, and he was succeeded as prime minister by Mr Arthur Balfour. From this moment he remained in the political background, and his ill-health gradually increased. He died at Hatfield on the zznd of August 1903, and was succeeded in the marquessate by his eldest son Lord Cranborne (b. 1861), who entered the house of commons for the Darwen division of Lancashire (1885- 1892) and since 1893 had been member for Rochester. The new marquess had been under-secretary for foreign affairs since 1900, and in October 1903 he became lord privy seal in Mr Balfour's ministry. Of the other four sons, Lord Hugh Cecil (b. 1869) became a prominent figure in parliament as Conserva- tive member for Greenwich (1895-1906), first as an ardent and eloquent High Churchman in connexion with the debates on education, &c., and then as one of the leaders of the Free-Trade Unionists opposing Mr Chamberlain; and his elder brother Lord Robert Cecil (b. 1864), who had at first devoted himself to the bar and become a K.C., entered parliament in 1906 for Maryle- bone, holding views in sympathy with those of Lord Hugh, who had been defeated through the opposition of a Tariff Reform Unionist in a triangular contest at Greenwich, which gave the victory to the Radical candidate. In the elections of January 1910 Lord Robert Cecil resigned his candidature for Marylebone, owing to' the strong opposition of the Tariff Reformers, which threatened to divide the party and lose the seat; he stood for Blackburn as a Unionist Free Trader and was defeated. On the other hand Lord Hugh Cecil was returned for Oxford University in place of the Rt. Hon. J. G. Talbot. Lord Hugh's candidature, which was announced in 1909 simultaneously with the resignation of the sitting member, was opposed by many who disagreed with his fiscal views and his attitude on Church questions; but it was found that he had the support of the great majority of the electors, and he was ultimately returned un- opposed. ( H. CH. ) SALISBURY, ROBERT CECIL, IST EARL OF (c. 1565-1612), English lord treasurer, the exact year of whose birth is unrecorded, was the youngest son of William Cecil, ist Lord Burghley, and of his second wife Mildred, daughter of Sir Anthony Cooke, of Gidea Hall in Essex. He was educated in his father's house and at Cambridge University. In 1584 he was sent to France, and was returned the same year to parliament, and again in 1586, as member for Westminster. In 1588 he accompanied Lord Derby in his mission to the Netherlands to negotiate peace with Spain, and sat in the parliamentof 1588, and in the assemblies of 1593, 1597 and 1601 for Hertfordshire. About 1589 he appears to have entered upon the duties of secretary of state, though he did not receive the official appointment till 1596. On the 20th of May 1591 he was knighted, and in August sworn of the privy council. In 1597 he was made chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster, and in 1598 despatched on a mission to Henry IV. of France, to prevent the impending alliance between that country and Spain. The next year he succeeded his father as master of the court of wards. On Lord Burghley's death on the 4th of August both Essex and Bacon desired to succeed him in the supreme direction of affairs, but the queen preferred the son of her last great minister. On Essex's disgrace, consequent on his sudden and unauthorized abandonment of his command in Ireland, Cecil's conduct was worthy of high praise. " By employing his credit with Her Majesty in behalf of the Earl," wrote John Petit (June 14, 1600), " he has gained great credit to himself both at home and abroad." At this period began Cecil's secret correspondence with James in Scotland. Hitherto Cecil's enemies had persuaded James that the secretary was unfavourable to his claims to the English throne. An under- standing was now effected by which Cecil was able to assure James of his succession, ensure his own power and predominance in the new reign against Sir Walter Raleigh and other competitors, and secure the tranquillity of the last years of Elizabeth, the conditions demanded by him being that all attempts of James to obtain parliamentary recognition of his title should cease, that an absolute respect should be paid to the queen's feelings, and that the communications should remain a profound secret. Writing later in the reign of James, Cecil says: " If Her Majesty had known all I did, how well these (? she) should have known the innocency and constancy of my present faith, yet her age and orbity, joined to the jealousy of her sex, might have moved her to think ill of that which helped to preserve her."1 Such was the nature of these secret communications, which, while they aimed at securing for Cecil a fresh lease of power in the new reign, conferred undoubted advantages on the country. Owing to Cecil's action, on the death of Elizabeth on the 24th of March 1603, James was proclaimed king, and took possession of the throne without opposition. Cecil was continued in his office, was created Baron Cecil of Essendon in Rutlandshire on the i3th of May, Viscount Cranborne on the 2oth of August 1604, and earl of Salisbury on the 4th of May 1605. He was elected chancellor of the University of Cambridge in February 1601, and obtained the Garter in May 1606. Meanwhile Cecil's success had completed the discontent of Raleigh, who, exasperated at his dismissal from the captaincy of the guard, became involved — whether innocently or not is uncertain — in the treasonable conspiracy known as the " Bye Plot." Cecil took a leading part in his trial in July 1603, and, though probably convinced of his guilt, endeavoured to ensure him a fair trial and rebuked the attorney-general, Sir Edward Coke, for his harshness towards the prisoner. On the 6th of May 1608 the office of lord treasurer was added to Salisbury's other appointments, and the whole conduct of public affairs was placed solely in his hands. His real policy is not always easy to distinguish, for the king con- stantly interfered, and Cecil, far from holding any absolute or continuous control, was often not even an adviser but merely a follower, simulating approval of schemes opposed to his real judgment. In foreign affairs his aim was to preserve the balance of power between France and Spain, and to secure the independ- ence of the Netherlands from either state. He also hoped, like his father, to make England the head of the Protestant alliance abroad; and his last energies were expended in effecting the marriage in 1612 of the princess Elizabeth, James's daughter, with the Elector Palatine. He was in favour of peace, preoccupied with the state of the finances at home and the decreasing revenue, and, though sharing Raleigh's dislike of Spain, was instrumental in making the treaty with that power in 1604. In June 1607 he promised the support of the government to the merchants who complained of Spanish ill-usage, but declared that the commons must not meddle with questions of peace and war. In 1611 he disapproved of the proposed marriage between the prince of Wales and the Infanta. His bias against Spain and his fidelity to the national interests render, therefore, his accept- ance of a pension from Spain a surprising incident in his career. At the conclusion of the peace in 1604 the sum Cecil received was £1000, which was raised the following year to £1500; while in 1609 he demanded an augmentation and to be paid for each piece of information separately. If. as has been stated,2 he received a pension also from France, it is not improbable that, like his contemporary Bacon, who accepted presents from suitors on both sides and still gave an independent decree, Cecil may have maintained a freedom from corrupting influences, while his acceptance of money as the price of information concerning the intentions of the government may have formed 1 Correspondence of King James VI. of Scotland with Sir R. Cecil, ed. by J. Bruce (Camden Soc., 1861), p. xl. 1 Gardiner, History of England, i. 214. SALISBURY, IST EARL OF 77 part of a general policy of cultivating good relations with the two great rivals of England (one advantage of which was the communication of plots formed against the government), and of maintaining the balance of power between them. It is difficult , however, in the absence of complete information, to understand the exact nature and signification of these strange relations. As lord treasurer Salisbury showed considerable financial ability. During the year preceding his acceptance of that office the expenditure had risen to £500,000, leaving, with an ordinary revenue of about £320,000 and the subsidies voted by parliament, a yearly deficit of £73,000. Lord Salisbury took advantage of the decision by the judges in the court of exchequer in Bates's case in favour of the king's right to levy impositions; and (on the 28th of July 1608) imposed new duties on articles of luxury and those of foreign manufacture which competed with English goods, while lowering the dues on currants and tobacco. By this measure, and by a more careful collection, the ordinary income was raised to £460,000, while £700,000 was paid off the debt, leaving at the beginning of 1610 the sum of £300,000. This was a substantial reform, and if, as has been stated, the " total result of Salisbury's financial administration " was " the halving of the debt at the cost of doubling the deficiency," the failure to secure a permanent improvement must be ascribed to the extravagance of James, who, disregarding his minister's entreaties and advice, continued to exceed his income by £149,000. But a want of statesmanship had been shown by Salisbury in forcing the king's legal right to levy impositions against the remonstrances of the parliament. In the " great contract," the scheme now put forward by Salisbury for settling the finances, his lack of political wisdom was still more apparent. The Commons were to guarantee a fixed annual subsidy, on condition of the abandonment of impositions and of the redress of grievances by the king. An unworthy and undignified system of higgling and haggling was initiated between the crown and the parlia- ment. Salisbury could only attribute the miscarriage of his scheme to the fact " that God did not bless it." But Bacon regarded it with severe disapproval, and in the parliament of 1613, after the treasurer's death, he begged the king to abandon these humiliating and dangerous bargainings, " that your majesty do for this parliament put off the person of a merchant and contractor and rest upon the person of a king." In fact, the vicious principle was introduced that a redress of grievances could only be obtained by a payment of subsidies. The identity of interests between the crown and the nation which had made the reign of Elizabeth so glorious, and which she herself had consummated on the occasion of her last public appearance by a free and voluntary concession of these same impositions, was now destroyed, and a divergence of interests, made patent by vulgar bargaining, was substituted which stimulated the disastrous struggle between sovereign and people, and paralysed the national development for two generations. This was scarcely a time to expect any favours for the Roman Catholics, but Salisbury, while fearing that the Roman Church in England would become a danger to the state, had always been averse from prosecution for religion, and he attempted to dis- tinguish between the large body of law-abiding and loyal Roman Catholics and those connected with plots and intrigues against the throne and government, making the offer in October 1607 that if the pope would excommunicate those that rebelled against the king and oblige them to defend him against invasion, the fines for recusancy would be remitted and they would be allowed to keep priests in their houses. This was a fair measure of toleration. His want of true statesmanship was shown with regard to the Protestant Nonconformists, towards whom his attitude was identical with that afterwards maintained by Laud, and the same ideal pursued, namely that of material and outward conformity, Salisbury employing almost the same words as the archbishop later, that " unity in belief cannot be preserved unless it is to be found in worship."2 ' Bacon's disparaging estimate of his cousin and rival was 1 Spedding, Life and Letters of Bacon, iv. 276. * Gardiner, History of England, i. 199. probably tinged with some personal animus, and instigated by the hope of recommending himself to James as his successor; but there is little doubt that his acute and penetrating description of Salisbury to James as one " fit to prevent things from growing worse but not fit to make them better," as one " greater in operatione than in opere," is a true one.3 Elsewhere Bacon accuses him "of an artificial animating of the negative " — in modern language, of official obstruction and " red tape." But in one instance at least, when he advised James not to press forward too hastily the union of England and Scotland, a measure which especially appealed to Bacon's imagination and was ardently desired by him, Salisbury showed a prudence and judgment superior to his illustrious critic. It can scarcely be denied that he rendered substantial services to the state in times of great difficulty and perplexity, and these services would probably have been greater and more permanent had he served a better king and in more propitious times. Both Elizabeth and James found a security in Salisbury's calm good sense, safe, orderly official mind and practical experience of business, of which there was no guarantee in the restlessness of Essex, the enterprise of Raleigh or the speculation of Bacon. On the other hand, he was neither guided nor inspired by any great principle or ideal, he contributed nothing towards the settlement of the great national problems, and he precipitated by his ill-advised action the disastrous struggle between crown and parliament. Lord Salisbury died on the 24th of May 1612, at the parsonage house at Marlborough, while returning to London from taking the waters at Bath. During his long political career he had amassed a large fortune, besides inheriting a considerable portion of Lord Burghley's landed estate. In 1607 he exchanged, at the king's request, his estate of Theobalds in Hertfordshire for Hatfield. Here he built the magnificent house of which he himself conceived the plans and the design, but which he did not live to inhabit, its completion almost coinciding with his death. In person and figure he was in strange contrast with his rivals at court, being diminutive in stature, ill-formed and weak in health. Elizabeth styled him her pygmy; his enemies delighted in vilifying his " wry neck," " crooked back" and " splayfoot," and in Bacon's essay on " Deformity," it was said, " the world takes notice that he paints out his little cousin to the life."4 Molin, the Venetian ambassador in England, gives a similar description of his person, but adds that he had "a noble countenance and features."' Lord Salisbury wrote The State and Dignitie of a Secretaire of Estate's Place (publ. 1642, reprinted in Harleian Miscellany, ii. and Somers Tracts (1809), v.; see also Harleian MSS. 305 and 354), and An Answer to Certain Scandalous Papers scattered abroad under Colour of a Calholick Admonition (1606), justifying his attitude towards recusants after the discovery of the Gun- powder Plot (Harl. Misc. ii.; Somers Tracts, v.). He married Elizabeth, daughter of William Brooke, sth Baron Cobham, by whom, besides one daughter, he had William (1591-1668), his successor as 2nd earl. No complete life of Robert Cecil has been attempted, but the materials for it are very extensive, including Hist. MSS. Comm. Series, Marquis of Salisbury's MSS. (superseding former reports in the series), from which MSS. selections were published in 1740 by S. Haynes, by Wm. Murdin in 1759, by John Bruce, in The Corre- spondence of King James VI. with Sir Robert Cecil, in 1861 (Camden Society), and by Ed. Lodge, in Illustrations of English History, in 1838. The 2nd earl of Salisbury, who sided with the parliament during the Civil War and represented his party in negotiations with the king at Uxbridge and at Newport, was succeeded by his grandson James (1648-1683) as 3rd earl. James's descendant, James, the 7th earl (1748-1823), who was lord chamberlain of the royal household from 1783 to 1804, was created marquess of Salisbury in 1789. ' His son and successor, James Brownlow William, the 2nd marquess (1791-1868), married Frances Mary, daughter of Bamber Gascoyne of Childwall Hall, Lancashire, and took the name of Gascoyne before that of Cecil. He was lord privy seal in 1852 and lord president of the council in 1858- 1859; his son and heir was the famous prime minister. * Spedding, Life and Letters of Bacon, iv. 278 note, 279. 4 Chamberlain to Carleton, Birch's Court of King James, i. 214. 6 Col. of State Papers: Venetian, x. 515. SALISBURY, 4TH EARL OF— SALISBURY SALISBURY, THOMAS DE MONTACUTE, 4x11 EARL OF (1388-1428), was son of John, the third earl, who was executed in 1400 as a supporter of Richard II. Thomas was granted part of his father's estates and summoned to parliament in 1409, though not fully restored till 1421. He was present throughout the campaign of Agincourt in 1415, and at the naval engagement before Harfleur in 1416. In the expedition of 1417-18 he served with increasing distinction, and especially at the siege of Rouen. During the spring of 1419 he held an independent command, capturing Fecamp, Honfleur and other towns, was appointed lieutenant-general of Normandy, and created earl of Perche. In 1420 he was in chief command in Maine, and defeated the Marechal de Rieux near Le Mans. When Henry V. went home next year Salisbury remained in France as the chief lieutenant of Thomas, duke of Clarence. The duke, through his own rash- ness, was defeated at Bauge on the 2ist of March 1421. Salisbury came up with the archers too late to retrieve the day,but recovered the bodies of the dead, and by a skilful retreat averted further disaster. He soon gathered a fresh force, and in June was able to report to the king " this part of your land stood in good plight never so well as now." (Foedera, x. 131). Salisbury's success in Maine marked him out as John of Bedford's chief lieutenant in the war after Henry's death. In 1423 he was appointed governor of Champagne, and by his dash and vigour secured one of the chief victories of the war at Cravant on the 3oth of July. Subsequent operations completed the conquest of Champagne, and left Salisbury free to join Bedford at Verneuil. There on the 1 7th of August, 1424, it was his " judgment and valour " that won the day. During the next three years Salisbury was employed on the Norman border and in Maine. After a year's visit to England he returned to the chief command in the field in July, 1428. Against the judgment of Bedford he determined to make Orleans his principal objective, and began the siege on the 1 2th of October. Prosecuting it with his wonted vigour he stormed Tourelles, the castle which protected the southern end of the bridge across the Loire, on the 24th of October. Three days later whilst surveying the city from a window in Tourelles he was wounded by a cannon-shot, and died on the 3rd of November 1428. Salisbury was the most skilful soldier on the English side after the death of Henry V. Though employed on diplomatic missions both by Henry V. and Bedford, he took no part in politics save for a momentary support of Humphrey, duke of Gloucester, during his visit to England in 1427-1428. He was a patron of John Lydgate, who presented to him his book The Pilgrim (now Harley MS. 4826, with a miniature of Salisbury, engraved in Strutt's Regal Antiquities). By his first wife Eleanor Holand, daughter of Thomas, earl of Kent, Salisbury had an only daughter Alice, in her right earl of Salisbury, who married Richard Neville, and was mother of Warwick the King- maker. His second wife Alice was grand-daughter of Geoffrey Chaucer, and after his death married William de la Pole, duke of Suffolk. The chief accounts of Salisbury's campaigns are to be found in the Gesta Henrici Quinti, edited by B. Williams for the Eng. Hist. Soc. (London, 1850) in the Vita Henrici Quinti (erroneously attributed to Thomas of Elmham), edited by T. Hearne (Oxford, 1727); the Chronique of E. de Monstrelet, edited by L. D. d'Arcq (Paris, 1857- 1862) ; the Chroniques of Jehan de Waurin, edited by W. and E. L. C. P. Hardy (London, 1864-1801); and the Chronique de la Pucette of G. Cousinot, edited by Vallet de Viriville (Pans, 1859). For modern accounts see Sir J. H. Ramsay, Lancaster and York (Oxford, 1892); and C. Oman, Political History of England, 1377- 1485 (London, 1906). (C L. K.) SALISBURY, WILLIAM LONGSWORD (or LONGESP£E), EARL OF (d. 1226), was an illegitimate son of Henry II. In 1198 he received from King Richard I. the hand of Isabella, or Ela (d. 1 261), daughter and heiress of William, earl of Salisbury, and was granted this title with the lands of the earldom. He held many high offices under John, and commanded a section of the English forces at Bouvines (1214), when he was made a prisoner. He remained faithful to the royal house except for a few months in 1216, when John's cause seemed hopelessly lost. He was also a supporter of Hubert de Burgh. In 1225 he went on an expedition to Gascony, being wrecked on the Isle of Re on the return voyage. The hardships of this adventure undermined his health, and he died at Salisbury on the 7th of March 1226, and was buried in the cathedral there. The eldest of Longsword's four sons, William (£.1212-1250) did not receive his father's earldom, although he is often called earl of Salisbury. In 1247 he led the English crusaders to join the French at Damietta and was killed in battle with the Saracens in February 1250. SALISBURY, a township of Litchfield county, in the north- western corner of Connecticut, U.S.A. Pop. (1910) 3522. Area, about 58 sq. m. Salisbury is served by the Central New England, and the New York, New Haven & Hartford railways. In the township are several villages, including Salisbury, Lakeville, Lime Rock, Chapinville and Ore Hill. Much of the township is hilly, and Bear Mountain (2355 ft.), near the Massachusetts line, is the highest elevation in the state. The Housatonic river forms the eastern boundary. The township is a summer resort. In it are the Scoville Memorial Library (about 8000 volumes in 1910); the Hotchkiss preparatory school (opened in 1892, for boys); the Salisbury School (Protestant Episcopal, for boys), removed to Salisbury from Staten Island in 1901 and formerly St Austin's school; the Taconic School (1896, for girls); and the Connecticut School for Imbeciles (established as a private institution in 1858). Among the manufactures are charcoal, pig-iron, car wheels and general castings at Lime Rock, cutlery at Lakeville, and knife-handles and rubber brushes at Salisbury. The iron mines are among the oldest in the country; mining began probably as early as 1731. The first settlement within the township was made in 1720 by Dutchmen and Englishmen, who in 1719 had bought from the Indians a tract of land along the Housatonic, called " Weatogue " — an Indian word said to mean " the wigwam place." In 1732 the township was surveyed with its present boundaries, and in 1738 the land (exclusive of that held under previous grants) was auctioned by the state at Hartford. In that year the present name was adopted, and in 1741 the township was incorporated. See Malcolm D. Rudd, An Historical Sketch of Salisbury, Con- necticut (New York, 1899); and Ellen S. Bartlett, "Salisbury," in The Connecticut Quarterly, vol. iv. No. 4, pp. 345 sqq. (Hartford, Conn., 1898). SALISBURY, a city and municipal and parliamentary borough, and the county town of Wiltshire, England, 83^ m. W. by S. of London, on the London and South-Western and Great Western railways. Pop. (1901) 17,117. Its situation is beautiful. Viewed from the hills which surround it the city is seen to lie among flat meadows mainly on the north bank of the river Avon, which is here joined by four tributaries. The magnificent cathedral stands close to the river, on the south side of the city, the streets of which are in part laid out in squares called the " Chequers." To the north rises the bare upland of Salisbury Plain. The cathedral church of St Mary is an unsurpassed example of Early English architecture, begun and completed, save its spire and a few details, within one brief period (1220-1266). There is a tradi- tion, supported by probability, that Elias de Derham, canon of the cathedral (d. 1245), was the principal architect. He was at Salisbury in 1220-1229, and had previously taken part in the erection of the shrine of Thomas i Becket at Canterbury. The building is 473 ft. in extreme length, the length of the nave being 229 ft. 6 in., the choir 151 ft., and the lady chapel 68 ft. 6 in. The width of the nave is 82 ft. and the height 84 ft. The spire, the highest in England, measures 404 ft. (For plan, see ARCHITECTURE: Romanesque and Gothic in England.) The cathedral, standing in a broad grassy close, consists of a nave of ten bays, with aisles and a lofty north porch, main transepts with eastern aisles, choir with aisles, lesser transepts, presbytery and lady chapel. The two upper storeys of the tower and the spire above are early Decorated. The west front, the last portion of the original building completed, bears in its rich -orna- mentation signs of the transition to the Decorated style. The perfect uniformity of the building is no less remarkable within than without. The frequent use of Purbeck marble for shafts contrasts beautifully with the delicate grey freestone which is the principal building material. In the nave is a series of monuments of much interest, which were placed here by James Wyatt, who, in an unhappy restoration of the cathedral (1782-1791), destroyed many magnificent stained-glass windows which had escaped the Reformation, and also removed two Perpendicular chapels and the detached belfry which stood to the north-west of the cathedral. One of the memorials is a SALISBURY 79 small figure of a bishop in robes. This was long connected with the ceremony of the " boy bishop," which, as practised both here and elsewhere until its suppression by Queen Elizabeth, consisted in the election of a choir-boy as " bishop during the period between St Nicholas' and Holy Innocents' Days. The figure was supposed to represent a boy who died during his tenancy of the office. But such small figures occur elsewhere, and have been supposed to mark the separate burial-place of the heart. The lady chapel is the earliest part of the original building, as the west end is the latest. The cloisters, south of the church, were built directly after its completion. The chapter-house is of the time of Edward I., a very fine octagonal example, with a remarkable series of contemporary sculptures. The library contains many valuable MSS. and ancient printed books. The diocese covers nearly the whole of Dorsetshire, the greater part of Wiltshire and very small portions of Berkshire, Hampshire, Somersetshire and Devonshire. There are three ancient parish churches: St Martin's, with square tower and spire, and possessing a Norman font and Early English portions in the choir; St Thomas's (of Canterbury), founded in 1240 as a chapel to the cathedral, and rebuilt in the i§th century; and St Edmund's, founded as the collegiate church of secular canons in 1268, but subsequently rebuilt in the Perpendicular period. The residence of the college of secular priests is occupied by the modern ecclesiastical college of St Edmund's, founded in 1873. St John's chapel, founded by Bishop Robert Bingham in the I3th century, is occupied by a dwelling-house. There is a beautiful chapel attached to the St Nicholas hospital. The poultry cross, or high cross, an open hexagon with six arches and a central pillar, was erected by Lord Montacute before 1335. In the market-place is Marochetti's statue to Sidney Herbert, Lord Herbert of Lea. The modern public buildings include the court-house, market, corn exchange and theatre. A park was laid out in 1887 to commemorate the jubilee of Queen Victoria, and in the same year a statue was erected to Henry Fawcett, the economist, who was born at Salisbury. Among remaining specimens of ancient domestic architecture may be mentioned the banqueting-hall of John Halle, wool merchant, built about 1470; and Audley House, belonging also to the isth century, and repaired in 1881 as a diocesan church house. There are a large number of educational and other charities, including the bishop's grammar school, Queen Elizabeth's grammar school, the St Nicholas hospital and Trinity hospital, founded by Agnes Bottenham in 1379. Brew- ing, tanning, carpet-making and the manufacture of hardware and of boots and shoes are carried on, and there is a considerable agricul- tural trade. The city is governed by a mayor, 7 aldermen and 21 councillors. Area, 1710 acres. History. — The neighbourhood of Salisbury is rich in anti- quities. The famous megalithic remains of Stonehenge (q.v.) are not far distant. From Milford Hill and Fisherton many prehistoric relics have been brought to the fine Blackmore Museum in the city. But the site most intimately associated with Salisbury is that of Old Sarum, the history of which forms the preface to that of the modern city. This is a desolate place, lying a short distance north of Salisbury, with a huge mound guarded by a fosse and earthworks. The summit is hollowed out like a crater, its rim surmounted by a rampart so deeply cut away that its inner side rises like a sheer wall of chalk 100 ft. high. Old Sarum was probably one of the chief fortresses of the early Britons and was known to the Romans as Sorbiodunum. Cerdic, founder of the West Saxon kingdom, fixed his seat there in the beginning of the 6th century. Alfred strengthened the castle, and it was selected by Edgar as a place of national assembly to devise means of checking the Danes. Under Edward the Confessor it possessed a mint. The ecclesiastical importance of Old Sarum begins with the establishment of a nunnery by Edward the Confessor. Early in the 8th century Wiltshire had been divided between the new diocese of Sherborne and that of Winchester. About 920 a bishopric had been created at Rams- bury, east of Savernake Forest ; to this Sherborne was joined in 1058 and in 1075/6 Old Sarum became the seat of a bishopric, transferred hither from Sherborne. Osmund, the second bishop, revised the form of communion service in general use, compiling a missal which forms the groundwork of the celebrated " Sarum Use." The "Sarum Breviary" was printed at Venice in 1483, and upon this, the most widely prevalent of English liturgies, the prayer-books of Edward VI. were mainly based. Osmund also built a cathedral, in the form of a plain cross, and this was traceable in the very dry summer of 183-4. Old Sarum could have afforded little room for a cathedral, bishop's palace, garrison and townsfolk. The priests complained of their bleak New S.vum. and waterless abode, and still more of its transference to the keeping of lay castellans. Soldiers and priests were at perpetual feud ; and after a licence had been granted by Pope Honorius III., it was decided to move down into the fertile Avon valley. In 1 102 the notorious bishop, Roger Poore, by virtue of his office of sheriff, obtained custody of the castle and the grant of a comprehensive charter from Henry I. which confirmed and extended the possessions of the ecclesiastical establishment, annexed new benefactions and granted perpetual freedom in markets and fairs from all tolls and customs. This was confirmed by Henry II., John, and Henry III. With the building of New Sarum in the i3th century and the transference to it of the see, Old Sarum lapsed to the crown. It has since changed hands several times, and under James I. formed part of the property of the earldom of Salisbury. By the i6th century it was almost entirely in ruins, and in 1608 it was ordered that the town walls should be entirely demolished. The borough returned two members to parliament from 1295 until 1832 when it was de- prived of representation by the Reform Act, the privilege of election being vested in the proprietors of certain free burgage tenures. In the I4th century the town appears to have been divided into aldermanries, the will of one John atte Stone, dated 1361, including a bequest of land within the aldermanry of Newton. In 1102 Henry I. granted a yearly fair for seven days,' on August 14 and for three days before and after. Henry III. granted another fair for three days from June 28, and Richard- II. for eight days from September 30. The new city, under the name of New Sarum (New Saresbury, Salisbury) immediately began to spring up round the cathedral close. A charter of Henry III. in 1227 recites the removal from Old Sarum, the king's ratification and his laying the foundation-stone of the church. It then grants and confirms to the bishops, canons and citizens, all liberties and free customs previously enjoyed, and declares New Sarum to be a free city and to constitute forever part of the bishop's demesne. During the three following centuries periodical disputes arose between the bishop and the town, ending generally in the complete submission of the latter. One of these resulted in 1472 in the grant of a new charter by Edward IV. empowering the bishop to enforce the regular election of a mayor, and to make laws for governing the town. In 1611 the city obtained a charter of incorporation from James I. under the title of " mayor and commonalty " of the city of New Sarum, the governing body to consist of a mayor, recorder and twenty- four aldermen, with power to make by-laws. This charter was renewed by Charles I. and confirmed by Cromwell in 1656. The latter recites that since the deprivation of archbishops and bishops, by parliament, the mayor and commonalty have bought certain possessions of the late bishop of New Sarum, together with fairs and markets. These it confirms, constitutes the town a city and county, subjects the close to its jurisdiction and invests the bailiff with the powers of a sheriff. In 1659 with the restoration of the bishops, the ancient charter of the city was revived and that of 1656 cancelled. In 1684 during the friction between Charles II. and the towns, Salisbury surrendered its charter voluntarily. Four years later in 1688 James II. restored to all cities their ancient charters, and the bishop continued to hold New Sarum as his demesne until 1835. The Municipal Corporations Act of that year reported that Salisbury was still governed under the charter of 1611, as modified by later ones of Charles II., James II. and Anne. In 1221 Henry III. granted the bishop a fair for two days from August 14, which in 1227 was prolonged to eight days. Two general fairs were obtained from Cromwell in 1656, on the Tuesday before^Whit-Sunday and on the Tuesday in the second week before Michaelmas. In 1792 the fairs were held on the Tuesday after January 6, on the Tuesday and Wednesday after March 2 5, on Whit-Monday, on the second Tuesday in September, on the second Tuesday after October 10, and on the Tuesday before Christmas Day; in 1888 on July 15 and October 18; and now on the Tuesdays after January 6 and October 10. A large pleasure-fair was held until recently on Whit-Monday and 8o SALISBURY— SALLUST Tuesday, but in 1888 this was reported as of bad character and it is now discontinued. A grant of a weekly market on Tuesday was obtained from Henry III. in 1227. In 1240 this privilege was being abused, a daily market being held, which was finally prohibited in 1361. In 1316 a market on Saturday was granted by Edward II. and in 1656 another on every second Tuesday by Cromwell. In 1769 a wholesale cloth market was appointed to be held yearly on August 24. In 1888 and 1891 the market days were Tuesday and Saturday. A great corn market is now held every Tuesday, a cattle market on alternate Tuesdays, and a|cheese market on the second Thursday in the month. Salisbury returned two members to parliament until 1885 when the number was reduced to one. As early as 1334 the town took part in foreign trade and was renowned for its breweries and woollen manufactories, and the latter industry continued until the i7th century, but has now entirely declined. Commercial activity gave rise to numerous confraternities amongst the various trades, such as those of the tailors, weavers and cutlers. The majority originated under Edward IV., though the most ancient — that of the tailors— was said to have been formed under Henry VI. and still existed in 1835. The manufacture of cutlery, once a flourishing industry, is now decayed. See Victoria County History. Wiltshire; Sir R. C. Hoare, History of New Sarum (1843) ; and History of Old Sarum (1843). SALISBURY, a town and the county-seat of Wicomico county, Maryland, U.S.A., on the Wicomico river, about 23 m. from its mouth. Pop. (1900) 4277, including 1006 negroes; (1910) 6690. It is served by the Baltimore, Chesapeake & Atlantic (which has shops here), and the New York, Philadelphia & Norfolk railways, and by steamers on the Wicomico river, which has a channel 9 ft. deep; Salisbury is the head of navigation. Grain, vegetables and lumber are shipped along the coast. Salisbury was founded in 1732, organized as a town in 1812, and incorporated in 1854 and again in 1888. SALISBURY, a city and the county-seat of Rowan county, North Carolina, U.S.A., about 120 m. W. by S. of Raleigh. Pop. (1890) 4418; (1900) 6277 (2408 negroes); (1910) 7153. Salisbury is served by the Southern railway, which has repair shops here. It is the seat of Livingstone College (African Methodist Episcopal, removed from Concord to Salisbury in 1882, chartered 1885). There is a national cemetery here, in which 12,147 Federal soldiers are buried. The city has various manufactures and is the trade centre of the surrounding farming country. Salisbury was founded about 1753, was first incorpo- rated as a town in 1755 and first chartered as a city in 1770. During the Civil War there was a Confederate military prison here. On the I2th of April 1865 the main body of General George Stoneman's cavalry encountered near Salisbury a force of about 3000 Confederates under General William M. Gardner, and captured 1364 prisoners and 14 pieces of artillery. SALISHAN, the name of a linguistic family of North American Indian tribes, the more important of which are the Salish (Flat- heads), Bellacoola, Clallam,Colville, Kalispel, Lummi, Nisqually, Okinagan, Puyallup, Quinault, Sanpoil, Shushwap, Skokomish, Songeesh, Spokan and Tulalip. They number about 20,000, and live in the southern part of British Columbia, the coast of Oregon, and the north-west of Washington, Montana and Idaho. SALLI (Sid), a seaport on the Atlantic coast of Morocco, on the north side of the Bu Ragrag opposite Rabat (q.v). Pop. about 30,000. The shrine of Sidi Abd Allah Hasun in Salli is so sacred as to close the street in which it stands to any but Moslems. Outside the town walls there is no security for life or property. A bar at the mouth of the river excludes vessels of more than two hundred tons; steamers lie outside, communi- cating with the port by lighters of native build manned by descendants of the pirates known as "Salli Rovers." (See BARBARY PIRATES.) SALLO, DENIS DE, Sieur de la Coudraye [pseudonym Siewr d'Hedonville] (1626-1669), French writer, and founder of the first French literary and scientific journal, was born at Paris in 1626. In 1665 he published the first number of the Journal des savants. The Journal, under his direction, was suppressed after the thirteenth number, but was revived shortly afterwards. He died in Paris on the I4th of May 1669. SALLUST [GAius SALLUSTIUS CRISPUS] (86-34 B.C.), Roman historian, belonging to a well-known plebeian family, was born at Amiternum in the country of the Sabines. After an ill-spent youth he entered public life, and was elected tribune of the people in 52, the year in which Clodius was killed in a street brawl by the followers of Milo. Sallust was opposed to Milo and to Pompey's party and to the old aristocracy of Rome. From the first he was a decided partisan of Caesar, to whom he owed such political advancement as he attained. In 50 he was removed from the senate by the censor Appius Claudius Pulcher on the ground of gross immorality, the real reason probably being his friendship for Caesar. In the following year, no doubt through Caesar's influence, he was reinstated and appointed quaestor. In 46 he was praetor, and accompanied Caesar in his African campaign, which ended in the decisive defeat of the remains of the Pompeian party at Thapsus. As a reward for his services, Sallust was appointed governor of the province of Numidia. In this capacity he was guilty of such oppression and extortion that only the influence of Caesar enabled him to escape condemnation. On his return to Rome he purchased and laid out in great splendour the famous gardens on the Quirinal known as the Horli Sallustiani. He now retired from public life and devoted himself to historical literature. His account of the Catiline conspiracy (De conjuratione Calilinae or Bellum Calilinarium) and of the Jugurthine War (Bellum Jugurlhinum) have come down to us complete, together with fragments of his larger and most important work (Historiae), a history of Rome from 78-67, intended as a continuation of L. Cornelius Sisenna's work. The Catiline Conspiracy (his first published work) contains the history of the memorable year 63. Sallust adopts the usually accepted view of Catiline, and describes him as the deliberate foe of law, order and morality, without attempting to give any adequate explanation of his views and intentions. Catiline, it must be remembered, had supported the party of Sulla, to which Sallust was opposed. There may be truth in Mommsen's suggestion that he was particularly anxious to clear his patron Caesar of all complicity in the conspiracy. Anyhow, the subject gave him the opportunity of showing off his rhetoric at the expense of the old Roman aristocracy, whose degeneracy he delighted to paint in the blackest colours. On the whole, he is not unfair towards Cicero. His Jugurthine War, again, though a valuable and interesting monograph, is not a satisfactory performance. We may assume that he had collected materials and put together notes for it during his governor- ship of Numidia. Here, too, he dwells upon the feebleness of the senate and aristocracy, too often in a tiresome, moralizing and philosophizing vein, but as a military history the work is unsatisfactory in the matter of geographical and chronological details. The extant fragments of the Histories (some discovered in 1886) are enough to show the political partisan, who took a keen pleasure in describing the reaction against the dictator's policy and legislation after his death. The loss of the work is to be regretted, as it must have thrown much light on a very eventful period, embracing the war against Sertorius, the campaigns of Lucullus against Mithradates of Pontus, and the victories of the great Pompey in the East. Two letters (Duae epistolae de republica ordinanda), letters of political counsel and advice addressed to Caesar, and an attack upon Cicero (Invectiva or Dedamatio in Ciceronem), frequently attributed to Sallust, are probably the work of a rhetorician of the first century A.D., also the author of a counter-invective by Cicero. Sallust is highly spoken of by Tacitus (Annals, iii. 30) : and Quintilian (ii. 5, x. i), who regards him as superior to Livy, does not hesitate to put him on a level with Thucydides. On the whole the verdict of antiquity was favourable to Sallust as an historian. He struck out for himself practically a new line in literature, his predecessors having been little better than mere dry-as-dust chroniclers, whereas he endeavoured to explain the connexion and meaning of events, and was a successful delineator of character. The contrast between his early life SALMASIUS— SALMERON Y ALFONSO 81 and the high moral tone adopted by him in his writings was frequently made a subject of reproach against him; but there is no reason why he should not have reformed. In any case, his knowledge of his own former weaknesses may have led him to take a pessimistic view of the morality of his fellow-men, and to judge them severely. His model was Thucydides, whom he imitated in his truthfulness and impartiality, in the introduction of philosophizing reflections and speeches, and in the brevity of his style, sometimes bordering upon obscurity. His fondness for old words and phrases, in which he imitated his contemporary Cato, was ridiculed as an affectation; but it was just this affectation and his rhetorical exaggerations that made Sallust a favourite author in the 2nd century A.D. and later. Editions and translations in various languages are numerous. Editio princeps (1470); (text) R. Dietsch (1874); H. Jordan (1887); A. Eussner (1887); (text and notes) F. D. Gerlach (1823- 1831); F. Kritz (1828-1853; ed. minor, 1856); C. H. Frotscher (1830); C. Merivale (1852); F. Jacobs, H. Wirz (1894); G. Long, revised by J. G. Frazer, with chief fragments of Histories (1884); W. W. Capes (1884); English translation by A. W. Pollard (1882). There are many separate editions of the Catilina and Jugurtha, chiefly for school use. The fragments have been edited by F. Kritz (1853) and B. Maurenbrecher (1891-1893); and there is an Italian translation (with notes) of the supposititious letters by G. Vittori (1897). On Sallust generally J. W. Lobell's Zur Beurtheilung des S. (1818) should still be consulted; there are also treatises by T. Vogel (1857) and M. Jager (1879 and 1884), T. Rambeau (1879); L. Constans, De sermone Sallustiano (1880); P. Bellezza, Dei fonti e dell' autorild storica di Sallustio (1891); and special lexicon by O. Eichert (1885). The sections in Teuffel-Schwabe's History of Roman Literature are full of information; see also bibliography of Sallust for 1878-1898 by B. Maurenbrecher in C. Bursian, Jahres- bericht iiber die Fortschritte der klassischen Altertumswissenschaft (1900). SALMASIUS, CLAUDIUS, the Latinized name of CLAUDE SAUMAISE (1588-1653), French classical scholar, born at Semur- en-Auxois in Burgundy on the I5th of April 1588. His father, a counsellor of the parlement of Dijon, sent him, at the age of sixteen, to Paris, where he became intimate with Casaubon. He proceeded in 1606 to the university of Heidelberg, where he devoted himself to the classics. Here he embraced Protestantism, the religion of his mother; and his first publication (1608) was an edition of a work by NilusCabasilas, archbishop of Thessalonica, in the I4th century, against the primacy of the pope (De primatu Papae), and of a similar tract by the Cala- brian monk Barlaam (d. c. 1348). In 1609 he brought out an edition of Florus. He then returned to Burgundy, and qualified for the succession to his father's post, which he eventually lost on account of his religion. In 1620 he published Casaubon's notes on the Augustan History, with copious additions of his own. In 1623 he married Anne Mercier, a Protestant lady of a distinguished family; the union was by no means a happy one, his wife being represented as a second Xanthippe. In 1629 Salmasius produced his magnum opus as a critic, his commentary on Solinus's Polyhislor, or rather on Pliny, to whom Solinus is indebted for the most important part of his work. Greatly as this commentary may have been overrated by his con- temporaries, it is a monument of learning and industry. Salmasius learned Arabic to qualify himself for the botanical part of his task. After declining overtures from Oxford, Padua and Bologna, in 1631 he accepted the professorship formerly held by Joseph Scaliger at Leiden. Although the appointment in many ways suited him, he found the climate trying; and he was persistently attacked by a jealous clique, led by Daniel Heinsius, who as university librarian refused him access to the books he wished to consult. Shortly after his removal to Holland, he composed at the request of Prince Frederick of Nassau, his treatise on the military system of the Romans (De re militari Romanorum), which was not published until 1657. Other works followed, mostly philological, but including a denuncia- tion of wigs and hair-powder, and a vindication of moderate and lawful interest for money, which, although it drew down upon him many expostulations from lawyers and theologians, induced the Dutch Church to admit money-lenders to the sacrament. His treatise De primatu Papae (1645), accompanying a republication of the tract of Nilus Cabasilas, excited a warm controversy in France, but the government declined to suppress it. In November 1649 appeared the work by which Salmasius is best remembered, his Defensio regia pro Carolo I. His advice had already been sought on English and Scottish affairs, and, inclining to Presbyterianism or a modified Episcopacy, he had written against the Independents. It does not appear by whose influence he was induced to undertake the Defensio regia, but Charles II. defrayed the expense of printing, and presented the author with £100. The first edition was anonymous, but the author was universally known. A French translation which speedily appeared under the name of Claude Le Gros was the work of Salmasius himself. This celebrated work, in our day principally famous for the reply it provoked from Milton, even in its own time added little to the reputation of the author. His reply to Milton, which he left unfinished at his death, and which was published by his son in 1660, is insipid as well as abusive. Until the appearance of Milton's rejoinder in March 1651 the effect of the Defensio was no doubt considerable; and it probably helped to procure him the flattering invitation from Queen Christina which induced him to visit Sweden in 1650. Christina loaded him with gifts and distinctions, but upon the appearance of Milton's book was unable to conceal her conviction that he had been worsted by his antagonist. Milton, addressing Christina herself, ascribes Salmasius's withdrawal from Sweden in 1651 to mortification at this affront, but this appears to be negatived by the warmth of Christina's subsequent letters and her pressing invitation to return. The claims of the university of Leiden and dread of a second Swedish winter seem fully adequate motives. Nor is there any foundation for the belief that Milton's invectives hastened his death, which took place on the 3rd of September 1653, from an injudicious use of the Spa waters. As a commentator and verbal critic, Salmasius is entitled to very high rank. His notes on the Augustan History and Solinus display not only massive erudition but massive good sense as well; his perception of the meaning of his author is commonly very acute, and his corrections of the text are frequently highly felicitous. His manly independence was shown in many circumstances, and the bias of his mind was liberal and sensible. He was accused of sour- ness of temper; but the charge, if it had any foundation, is extenu- ated by the wretched condition of his health. The life of Salmasius was written at great length by Philibert de la Mare, counsellor of the parlement of Dijon, who inherited his MSS. from his son. Papillon says that this biography left nothing to desire, but it has never been printed. It was, however, used by Papillon himself, whose account of Salmasius in UsBibliotheque des auteurs de Bourgogne (Dijon, 1745) is by far the best extant, and con- tains an exhaustive list of his works, both printed and in MS. There is an eloge by A. Clement prefixed to his edition of Salmasius's Letters (Leiden, 1656), and another by C. B. Morisot, inserted in his own Letters (Dijon, 1656). See also E. Haag, La France protestante, (ix. 149-173); and, for the Defensio regia, G. Masson's Life of Milton. SALMERON Y ALFONSO, NICOLAS (1838-1908), Spanish statesman, was born at Alhama la Seca in the province of Almeria, on the loth of April 1838. He was educated at Granada and became assistant professor of literature and philosophy at Madrid. The last years of the reign of Isabella II. were times of growing discontent with her bad government and with the monarchy. Salmeron joined the small party who advocated the establishment of a republic. He was director of the Opposi- tion paper La Discusion, and co-operated with Don Emilio Castelar on La Democracia. In 1865 he was named one of the members of the directing committee of the Republican party. In 1867 he was imprisoned with other suspects. When the revolution of September 1868 broke out, he was at Almeria recovering from a serious illness. Salmeron was elected to the Cortes in 1871, and though he did not belong to the Socialist party, defended its right to toleration. When Don Amadeo of Savoy resigned the Spanish crown on the nth of February 1873 Salmeron was naturally marked out to be a leader of the party which endeavoured to establish a republic in Spain. After serving as minister of justice in the Figueras cabinet, he was chosen president of the Cortes, and then, on the i8th of July 1873, president of the republic, in succession to Pi Margall. He became president at a time when the Federalist party had thrown all the south of Spain into anarchy. Salmeron was compelled to use the troops to restore order. When, however, he found that the generals insisted on executing rebels taken in arms, he resigned on the ground that he was opposed to capital punishment (7th September). He resumed his seat as president of the Cortes on the 8th of September. His successor, Castelar, was compelled to restore order by drastic means. Salmeron took part in the attack made on him in the Cortes on the 3rd of January 1874, which provoked the generals into closing the SALMON, G.— SALMON AND SALMONIDAE chamber and establishing a provisional military government Salmeron went into exile and remained abroad till 1881, when he was recalled by Sagasta. In 1886 he was elected to the Cortes as Progressive deputy for Madrid, and unsuccessfully endeavoured to combrne the jarring republican factions into a party of practical moderate views. On the i8th of April 1907 he was shot at, but not wounded, in the streets of Barcelona by a member of the more extreme Republican party. He died at Pau on the 2ist of September 1908. SALMON, GEORGE (1810-1904), British mathematician and divine, was born in Dublin on the 25th of September 1819 and educated at Trinity College in that city. Having become senior moderator in mathematics and a fellow of Trinity, he took holy orders, and was appointed regius professor of divinity in Dublin University in 1866, a position which he retained until 1888, when he was chosen provost of Trinity College. He was provost until his death on the 22nd of January 1904. As a mathematician Salmon was a fellow of the Royal Society, and was president of the mathematical and physical section of the British Association in 1878. He was a D.C.L. of Oxford and an LL.D. of Cambridge. His published mathematical works include: Analytic Geometry of Three Dimensions (1862), Treatise on Conic Sections (4th ed., 1863) and Treatise on the Higher Plane Curves (2nd ed., 1873); these books are of the highest value, and have been translated into several languages. As a theologian he wrote Historical Introduction to the Study of the New Testament (1885), The Infallibility of the Church (1888), Non- Miraculous Christianity (1881) and The Reign of Law (1873)- SALMON and SALMONIDAE.1 The Salmonidae are an im- portant family of fishes belonging to the Malacopterygian Teleosteans, characterized as follows: Margin of the upper jaw formed by the premaxillaries and the maxillaries — supra- occipital in contact with the frontals, but frequently overlapped by the parietals, which may meet in a sagittal suture; opercular bones all well developed. Ribs sessile, parapophyses very short or absent; epineurals, sometimes also epipleurals, present. Post-temporal forked, the upper branch attached to the epiotic, the lower to the opisthotic; postclavicle, as usual, applied to the inner side of the clavicle. A small adipose dorsal fin. Air-bladder usually present, large. Oviducts rudimentary or absent, the ova falling into the cavity of the abdomen before extrusion. The Salmonidae are very closely related to the Clupeidae, or herring family, from which they are principally distinguished by the position of the postclavicle and by the presence of a rayless fin on the back, at a considerable distance from the true or rayed dorsal fin; this so-called adipose fin is an easy recogni- tion-mark of this family, so far as British waters are concerned, for, if it is present in several other families, these have no repre- sentatives in the area occupied by the fresh-water salmonids, with the exception of the North American Siluridae and Percop- sidae, which are readily distinguished by the pungent spine or spines which precede the rays of the first dorsal fin. The imper- fect condition of the oviducts, quite exceptional among fishes, owing to which the large ripe eggs may be easily squeezed out of the abdomen, is a feature of great practical importance, since it renders artificial impregnation particularly easy, and to it is due the fact that the species of Salmo have always occupied the first place in the annals of fish-culture. The Salmonidae inhabit mostly the temperate and arctic zones of the northern hemisphere, and this is the case with all fresh- water forms, with one exception, Retropinna, a smelt-like fish from the coasts and rivers of New Zealand. A few deep-sea forms (Argentina, Microstoma, Nansenia, Balhylagus) are known from the Arctic ocean, the Mediterranean and the Antarctic ocean, down to 2000 fathoms. The question has been discussed whether the salmonids, so many of which live in the sea, but resort to rivers for breeding purposes, were originally marine or fresh-water. The balance of opinion is in favour of the former hypothesis, which is supported by the fact that the overwhelm- ing majority of the members of the suborder of which the salmonids form part permanently inhabit the sea. The clupeids, 1 The Latin name salmo possibly means literally " the leaper," from salire, to leap, jump. for instance, which are their nearest allies, are certainly of marine origin, as proved by their abundance in Cretaceous seas, yet a few, like the shads, ascend rivers to spawn, in the same way as the salmon does, without this ever having been adduced as evidence in favour of a fresh-water origin of the genus Clupea to which they belong. No remains older than Miocene (Osmerus, Frothy mallus, Thaumaturus) are certainly referable to this family, the various Cretaceous forms originally referred to it, such as Osmeroides and Pachyrhizodus, being now placed with the Elopidae. There is probably no other group of fishes to which so much attention has been paid as to the Salmonidae, and the species have been unduly multiplied by some writers. Perhaps not more than 80 should be regarded as valid, but some of them fall into a number of local forms which are distinguished as varieties or subspecies by some authors, whilst others would assign them full specific rank. These differences of opinion prevail whether we deal with Salmo proper or with Coregonus. Classification.— The recent genera may be arranged in five groups: The first, which includes Salmo, Brachymystax , Stenodus, Coregonus, Phylogephyra and Thymallus, has 8 to 20 branchiostegal rays, 9 to 13 rays in the ventral fin, the pyloric appendages more or less numerous (17 to 200) and breeding takes place in fresh water. The second group, ,with the single genus Argentina, is, like the follow- ing, marine, and is characterized by 6 branchiostegal rays, n to 14 ventral rays, the stomach caecal, with pyloric appendages in moderate numbers (12 to 20). The third group, genera Osmerus, Thaleichthys , Mallotus, Plecoglossus, Hypomesus, has 6 to 10 branchiostegal rays, 6 to 8 ventral rays, the stomach caecal, with pyloric appendages few (2 to i i) or rather numerous. The fourth group, genera Microstoma, Nansenia, Bathylagus, deep-sea forms with the branchiostegal rays reduced to 3 or 4, ventral rays 8 to 10, the stomach caecal and pyloric appendages absent ; whilst the fifth group, with the genera Retropinna and Salanx, is distinguished from the preceding in having no air-bladder, branchiostegal rays 3 to 6, ventral rays 6 or 7, stomach siphonal and pyloric appendages absent. The genus Salmo, the most important from the economical and sporting points of view, is characterized by small smooth scales, which at certain seasons may become embedded in the slimy skin, a moderately high dorsal fin with 10 to 12 well-developed rays, and a large mouth provided with strong teeth, which are present not only in the jaws and on the palate, but also on the tongue, the maxillary or posterior bone of the upper jaw extends to below or beyond the eye. Young specimens (see PARR) are marked with dark vertical bars on the sides (parr-marks), which in some trout are retained throughout life, and have the caudal fin more or less deeply forked or marginate, the form of the fin changing with the age and sexual development of the fish. Adult males have the jaws more produced in front than females, and both snout and chin may become curved and hooked. As pointed out by A. Gunther, who was the first to make a profound study of the members of this genus, and especially of the British forms, there is probably no other group of fishes which offers so many difficulties to the ichthyologist with regard to the distinction of species, as well as to certain points in their life-history, the almost infinite variations which they undergo being dependent on age, sex and sexual development, food and the properties of the water. The difficulties in their study have rather been increased by the excessive multiplication of so-called specific forms. Opinions also vary as to the importance to be attached to the characters which serve to group trie principal species into natural divisions. Whilst A. Gunther admitted two genera, Salmo and Oncorhynchus, D. S. Jordan and B. W. Evermann go so far as to recognize five, Oncorhynchus, Salmo, Hucho, Cristivomer and Salvelinus. The latter arrangement is certainly the more logical, the difference between the first genus and the second being of rather less importance than that between the second and the third. However, considering the slightness of the distinctive characters on which these divisions are based, and the complete passage which obtains between them, the writer of this article thinks it best to maintain the genus Salmo in the wide sense, whilst retaining the divisions as subordinate divisions or sub-genera, with the following definitions: — Oncorhynchus (Pacific salmon). — Vomer flat, toothed along the shaft, at least in the young; anal fin with 12 to 17 well-developed rays. Salmo (true salmon and trout). — Vomer flat, toothed along the shaft, at least in the young; anal fin with 8 to 12 well-developed rays. Salvelinus (char). — Vomer boat-shaped, the shaft strongly de- Dressed behind the head, which alone is toothed, the teeth forming an isolated fascicle; anal fin with 8 to 10 well-developed rays. Hucho (huchens). — Vomer as in the preceding, but teeth forming a single arched transverse series continuous with the palatine teeth; anal fin with 8 to 10 well-developed rays. The salmon itself (Salmo salar), the type of the family, is a arge fish, attaining a length of 4 or 5 ft., and living partly in the SALMON AND SALMONIDAE sea, partly in fresh water, breeding in the latter. Fish which thus ascend rivers to spawn are called " anadromous." It may be briefly defined as of silvery coloration, with small black spots usually confined to the side above the lateral line, with the teeth on the shaft of the vomer disappearing in the adult, with 18 to 22 gill-rakers on the first branchial arch, with n or 12 well- developed rays in the dorsal fin, no to 125 scales in the lateral line, and n or 12 (exceptionally 13) between the latter and the posterior border of the adipose fin. The young, called "parr" or "samlet," characterized by a smaller mouth, the maxillary bone not extending much beyond the vertical of the centre of the eye, the presence of an alternating double or zigzag series of teeth on the shaft of the vomer, the presence of dark vertical bars on the sides of the body, together with more or less numerous small red spots, is hatched in the spring, and usually remains for about two years in the rivers, descending at the third spring to the sea, where it is known as "smolt." In the sea it soon assumes a more uniform silvery coloration and from this state, or " grilse," develops its sexual organs and re-enters rivers to breed, after which operation, much emaciated and unwholesome as food, it is known as " kelt," and returns to the sea to recuperate. It has now been ascertained by the investigations instituted in Norway by K. Dahl that the smolts, immediately after leaving the rivers, make for the open sea, and do not return to the coast until they have reached the grilse stage. Thus specimens measuring between 8 and 18 in. hardly ever fall into the hands of the angler. The salmon inhabits the North Atlantic and its tributary waters. It is known to extend as far north as Scandinavia, Lapland, Iceland, Greenland and Labrador, and as far south as the north-west of Spain and the state of Connecticut. It ascends the Rhine as far as Basel. There are land-locked forms in Scandinavia and in Canada and Maine, which are regarded by some authors as distinct species (5. hardinii from Lake Wener, 5. sebago from Sebago Lake in Maine, 5. ouananiche from Lake St John, Canada and neighbouring waters). These non- migratory forms are smaller than the typical salmon, never exceeding a weight of 25 Ib, the ouananiche, the smallest of all, rarely weighing iffi> and averaging 35. Although spending their whole life in fresh waters, the habits of these fish are very similar to those of the sea salmon, ascending tributary streams to spawn in their higher ranges, and then returning to the deep parts of the lakes, which are to them what the sea is to the anadromous salmonids. The salmon breeds in the shallow running waters of the upper streams of the rivers it ascends. The female, when about to deposit her eggs, scoops out a trough in the gravel of the bed of the stream. This she effects by lying on her side and ploughing into the gravel by energetic motions of her body. She then deposits her eggs in the trough; while she is engaged in these operations she is attended by a male, who sheds milt over the eggs as the female extrudes them, fertilization being, as in the great majority of Teleostei, external. The parent fish then fill up the trough and heap up the gravel over the eggs until these are covered to a depth of some feet. The gravel heap thus formed is called a " redd." The period of the year at which spawning takes place in the British Isles, and in similar latitudes of the northern hemisphere, varies to a certain extent with the locality, and in a given locality may vary in different years; but, with rare exceptions, spawning is confined to the period between the beginning of September and the middle of January. The eggs are spherical and non-adhesive; they are heavier than water, and are moderately tough and elastic. The size varies slightly with the age of the parent fish, those from full-sized females being slightly larger than those from very young fish. According to rough calculations made at salmon-breeding establishments, there are 25,000 eggs to a gallon ; the diameter is about a quarter of an inch. It is usually estimated that a female salmon produces about 900 eggs for each pound of her own weight; but this average is often exceeded. The time between fertilization and hatching, or the escape of the young fish from the egg-membrane, varies considerably with the temperature to which the eggs are exposed. It has been found that at a constant temperature of 41° F. the period is 97 days; but the period may be as short as 70 days and as long as 150 days without injury to the health of the embryo. It follows therefore that in the natural conditions eggs deposited in the autumn are hatched in the early spring. The newly hatched fish, or " alevin," is provided with a very large yolk-sac, and by the absorption of the yolk is nourished for some time; although its mouth is fully formed and open, it takes no food. The alevin stage lasts for about six weeks, and at the end of it the young fish is about ij in. long. The grilse, after spawning in autumn, return again to the sea in the winter or following spring, and reascend the rivers as mature spawning salmon in the following year. Both salmon and grilse after spawning are called " kelts.' The following recorded experi- ment illustrates the growth of grilse into salmon: a grilse-kelt of 2 Ib was marked on March 31, 1858, and recaptured on August 2 of the same year as a salmon of 81b. The ascent of rivers by adult salmon is not so regular as that of grilse, and the knowledge of the subject is not complete. Although salmon scarcely ever spawn before the month of September, they do not ascend in shoals just before that season; the time of ascent extends throughout the spring and summer. A salmon newly arrived in fresh water from the sea is called a clean salmon, on account of its bright, well-fed appearance; during their stay in the rivers the fish lose the brilliancy of their scales and deteriorate in condition. The time of year at which clean salmon ascend from the sea varies greatly in different rivers; and rivers are, in relation to this subject, usually denominated early or late. The Scottish rivers flowing into the German Ocean and Pentland Firth are almost all early, while those of the Atlantic slope are late. The Thurso in Caithness and the Naver in Sutherlandshire contain fresh-run salmon in December and January; the same is the case with the Tay. In Yorkshire salmon commence their ascent in July, August or September if the season is wet, but if it is dry their migration is delayed till the autumn rains set in. In all rivers more salmon ascend immediately after a spate or flood than when the river is low, and more with the flood tide than during the ebb. In their ascent salmon are able to pass obstructions, such as waterfalls and weirs of considerable height, and the leaps they make in surmounting such impediments and the persistence of their efforts are very remarkable. We reproduce here, with additions, Professor Noel Paton's summary (published first in the loth edition of this Encyclopaedia) of observations on the life-history of the salmon. Important ad- vances in our knowledge of the life-history of the salmon have been made through the investigations of Professor F. Miescher on the Rhine at Basel, of Professor P. P. C. Hoek in Holland, of Mr Archer as lessee of the river Sands in Norway and as inspector of salmon fisheries for Scotland in conjunction with Messrs Gray and Tosh, and of a number of workers in the laboratory of the Royal College of Physicians of Edinburgh. With regard to the food of salmon, the enormously rapid growth of smolts to grilse and of salmon from year to year shows that they feed in the sea. In a few months a smolt will increase from a few ounces to 4 or 5 Ib; while Archer's weighings of 1 6 salmon which had been marked and recaptured in the following year showed an average gain of 36%, reckoned on from kelt stage to kelt stage. During the season of 1895 Tosh, at Berwick-on-Tweed, opened between March and August 514 fish, and found food in the stomachs of 76, or over 14% of the whole. As to the nature of the food, it was found to be as follows: — . 36 or 47% 18% H% 10% 97- Herring Crustacea, amphipods, &c 14 Sand eels 1 1 Haddock and whiting 8 Feathers and vegetable matter ... 7 Excluding the feathers and vegetable matter, which are not really of the nature of food, all the material found in the stomach was of marine origin. Hoek, out of 2000 fish examined by him, found 7 with food in the stomach, and, curiously enough, 4 of these were taken on the same day. In each case marine fish constituted the food. As to where salmon go to feed in the sea, our information is still very deficient, but the prevalence of herring in the stomach would seem to indicate that they must follow the shoals of these fish which approach the coast during the summer months. While there can be no doubt that salmon feed in the sea, the question of whether they feed in fresh water has been much debated. It is difficult for the popular mind to conceive of an active fish like the salmon subsisting for several months without food, and the fact that the fish so frequently not only takes into its mouth but actually swallows worms and various lures has still further tended to confirm many people in the conviction that salmon do feed in fresh water? In discussing the question it is well clearly to understand what is meant by feeding. It is the taking, digesting and absorbing of material of use in the economy in such quantities as to be of benefit to the individual. Accepting this definition, it may at once be said that all the evidence we possess is entirely opposed to the view that salmon feed when in fresh water. Miescher examined the stomachs of about 2000 salmon captured at Basel, about 500 m. from the mouth of the Rhine, and in only two did he find any indication of feeding. These two fish were male kelts. One contained the remains of a cyprinoid fish, and the other had a dilated stomach with an acid secretion, but no food remains. Hoek, who, as already stated, examined about 2000 fish, found food of marine origin in 7, but in none food derived from fresh water. Of the 132 stomachs of salmon from the estuaries and upper waters of Scottish rivers examined in the laboratory of the College of Physicians not one contained any food remains. The stomach of salmon captured in fresh water is collapsed and shrunken. Its mucous membrane is thrown into folds, and it contains a small amount of mucus of a neutral reaction. The intestine, which usually contains numerous SALMON AND SALMONIDAE tape- worms, is full of a greenish-yellow viscous material which, when examined under the microscope, is found to consist of mucus with shed epithelial and other cells and with masses of crystals of carbonate of lime. In no case does the microscope reveal any food remains such as fish-scales, plates of Crustacea or bristles of worms or annelids. In the fish taken in the estuaries up to the month of August the gall-bladder is distended ; in those taken later in the year it is empty. In all the fish from the upper waters the gall-bladder is empty and collapsed. According to the investigations of Hoek and of Gulland, the. lining membrane of the stomach and intestine degenerates while the fish is in the river, but the correctness of these observations has been denied by F. B. Brown and J. Kingston Barton. Gillespie finds that the activity of the digestive processes is low in fish taken from the rivers, and that micro-organisms, which would be killed by the hydrochloric acid of the gastric juice were it actively secreted, flourish in the intestines of the fish from the upper waters. Those who believe that the salmon feeds in fresh water explain the fact that the stomach is always found empty by the supposition that the fish vomits any food when it is captured, and several descriptions of cases in which this has been observed might be quoted; but such observations must be accepted with caution, and the contracted state of the stomach, the absence of the hydrochloric acid of the gastric juice, and lastly the absence of any traces of digested food remains in the contents of the intestine, negative this explanation. The question may be presented in another way. Is there any reason why the salmon should feed while in fresh water? The investigations carried on in the laboratory of the College of Physicians have definitely shown that the salmon leaves the sea with an enormous supply of nourishment stored in its muscles, and that during its sojourn in fresh water it gets its energy and builds up its rapidly growing ovaries and testes from this stored material. Briefly stated, th«"se investigations show that the supply of albuminous material and fats stored in the muscles and used while the fish is in the river is amply sufficient for the greatest requirements of the fish. The amount of energy liberated from the fats and albuminous material is 570 times more than is required to raise the fish from the level of the estuary to that of the upper waters! These analyses further show that all the materials required for the construction of the ovaries and the testes are found in sufficient quantity in the muscles, with the exception of iron, which is, however, abundantly present in the blood. It is a very common opinion that kelts feed voraciously while still in fresh water, and this has been used as an argument that they should be destroyed. It is not easy to bring forward such satis- factory evidence as has been adduced in the case of unspawned salmon, since it is illegal to kill kelts; but none of the 25 kelts procured by the Scottish Fishery Board, and examined in the College of Physicians' laboratory, contained any food, and Mr Anderson, formerly of Dunkeld, informs Professor Paton that in the old days, when kelts were habitually killed when captured, he has opened a large number and never found any trace of food in the stomach. Some fishers declare that they have seen kelts devouring salmon fry, but it is not easy to make accurate observations in deep water. According to Dr Gulland's investigations, the mucous membrane of the stomach and intestine is completely regenerated while the gall-bladder contains bile, and the digestive activity of the alimentary canal is greater than in salmon before spawning. Kelts thus appear at least to be capable of feeding. The rate of growth of the genitalia has been carefully studied by Miescher, Archer and Hoek. From January till about the end of May the growth of the ovaries is slow. In Hoek's series of obser- vations, which are the most complete, they increased from -35 to •85% of the body weight. After this they enlarge more rapidly, and by the end of August are about 3% in salmon taken at the mouth of the Tweed, about 4% in the salmon from the mouth of the Rhine and about 8% in the salmon from the Basel fisheries. By November they have risen to 20% in the Tweed and in Holland, and to 23 % in the upper reaches of the Rhine. According to Archer's observations, the development of the ovaries in grilse in the earlier months somewhat lags behind that in the salmon. The growth of the testes has been chiefly investigated by Archer and Tosh in the Tweed and by Miescher at Basel. From March to the middle of July in the Tweed these organs increase from about -ip to -35% of the weight of the fish. In July their rate of growth increases, and they reach their maximum development at the end of September, when they are about 6% of the body weight. In the Rhine in March they weigh about • I %, and they reach their maximum development of about 5% in October. What leads to the migration of salmon from sea to river and river to sea ? It is usually supposed that they come to the river to spawn; that it is the nisus generativus that drives them from the sea, where their ova will not develop, to the fresh water where develop- ment is possible. But it is found that salmon are passing from sea to river at all seasons of the year, and with their genitalia in all stages of development — some fish, running in March with ovaries only i % of the body weight, other fish not running till October with ovaries 15 or 16% of the body weight. It is difficult, then, to accept the theory that the sexual act is the governing factor. That it is a secondary factor seems to be indicated by the great run of May July Oct. Nov.1 Feb. Mar. April. and and and Kelts. June. Aug. Nov. Muscles 2481 2214 2355 2599 2210 2270 1750 946 Ovaries 23 24 24 33 47 72 545 9 Total 2504 2238 2379 2632 2257 2342 2295 955 fish in June, July and August, when the genitalia are most rapidly growing. There is one respect, however, in which all the fish leaving the sea for the river agree, and that is in the amount of stored material accumulated in their bodies. In the early running fish this material is largely confined to the muscles, but in the later coming fish it is more eqitally distributed between muscles and genitalia. The amount of stored material may be measured by the amount of solids, and if we express the results of all the fish examined in terms of fish of uniform size — loo cm. in length — the following results are obtained : — It would thus appear that, when the salmon has in the sea accumu- lated a certain definite amount of nourishment, it ceases to feed, and returns to the river irrespective of the state of its genital organs. Nutrition, and not the nisus generativus, appears to be the motive power. That the fish after spawning returns to the sea in search of food is fully recognized by all. Course of Migration. — It is well known that while salmon run all the year through in greater or lesser numbers, the run of grilse takes place in the summer months, from May to August. But it is further possible to divide the salmon into classes — the so-called winter salmon of the Rhine, large fish running from October to February, with unripe ovaries and testes; and the summer salmon, running for the most part from March to October, with genitalia more or less ripe. These summer fish are small in the early months, but increase in size as the autumn advances. The winter salmon, along with the early summer or spring fish, appear to pass directly to the upper reaches of the river, and to spawn there, while the larger late-coming fish appear to populate the lower waters. This seems to be indicated by the comparison of upper-water and estuary fish throughout the year. The period at which male and female fish enter the rivers also appears to be somewhat different. The observations of Tosh, Mtescher and Hoek show that throughout the year the female fish exceed the males in number, and, secondly, that during the earlier months of the year female fish run in much larger numbers than do male fish. It is only in September that anything like an equality between the two sexes is established. But in Great Britain it is not until the end of August that the nets are removed, and one cannot but believe that the destruction of such a very large proportion of females as are captured during the early months of the season must have a most prejudicial effect upon the breeding stock. Rate of Migration. — By a comparison of the first appearance of winter salmon and of grilse in the markets of Holland and of Basel — 500 m. up the river — Miescher gives some data for the determination of the average rate at which salmon ascend an unobstructed stream. It was found that winter salmon appeared at Basel about 54 days after their appearance in Holland, which would give a rate of passage of about ip m. per diem. From a smaller number of observations on grilse, it appears that they travel at a somewhat slower rate. It is, however, doubtful how far these figures are of value in deciding the rate at which fish pass up the lower reaches of the river. Great difficulties have been experienced in ascertaining the age and rate of growth of salmon. The practice has long ago been resorted to of " marking " salmon, the most satisfactory mark being a small oblong silver label, oxidized or blackened, bearing distinctive letters and numbers, to the dorsal fin. But of late the structure of the scales has been studied with the object of obtaining indications of the age, growth and spawning habit. H. W. Johnston in 1905 contributed an interesting paper on the subject. The scales bear concentric lines, which vary in number and relative distance according to the growth of the fish, and during the feeding periods these lines are added with more rapidity and a greater degree of separation than at other times. Johnston has endeavoured to ascertain their meaning in Tay salmon, and he has shown that the number of lines external to their last annual ring gives some clue to the time at which they left the sea; he is thus able to distinguish among ascending salmon such as are on their first return from such as have made the journey once or oftener before. The group of Pacific salmon, or king salmon, commonly desig- nated as Oncorhynchus, contains the largest and commercially the most important of the Salmonidae. They are anadromous species inhabiting the North Pacific and entering the rivers of America as well as of Asia. The best known and most valuable is the quinnat (5. quinnat), ascending the large rivers in spring and summer, spawning from July to December. They die after the breeding season is over, and never return to the sea. For the important Sal- monidae known as TROUT, CHAR,WHITEFISH,SMELT,GRAYLING,&C., see the separate articles. The huchen (5. hucho) of the Danube is an elongate, somewhat pike-like form, growing to the same size 1 Winter fish not due to spawn till following November. SALMONEUS— SALONICA as the salmon, of silvery coloration, with numerous small black dots, extending on the dorsal fin. Allied to it are 5. fluviatilis from Siberia and S. perryi or blackistoni from the northern island of Japan. The genus Stenodus is intermediate between Salmo and Cpregonus (whitefish). S. leucichthys is an anadromous species, inhabiting the Caspian Sea and ascending the Volga and the Ural; it is also found in the Arctic ocean, ascending the Ob, Lena, &c. It grows to a length of 5 ft. A second species occurs in Arctic North America; this is the " Inconnu," 5. mackenzii, from the Mackenzie river and its tributaries. The capelin (Mallotus mllosus, so called from the villous bands formed by the scales of mature males) is a salmonid of the coasts of Arctic America and north-eastern Asia; it deposits its eggs in the sand along the shores in incredible numbers, the beach becoming a quivering mass of eggs and sand. Plecoglossus, a salmonid from Japan and Formosa, is highly remarkable for its lamellar, comb-like, lateral teeth. The siel-smelts, Argentina, are deep-sea salmonids, of which examples have occasionally been taken off the coasts of Scotland and Ireland. Bathylagus,^ another salmonid discovered by the " Challenger " expedition, is still better adapted for life at great depths (down to 1700 fathoms), the eyes being of enormous size. AUTHORITIES. — On the systematic and life histories : A. Giinther, Catalogue of Fishes in the British Museum, vol. vi. (1866) ; F. Day, British and Irish Salmonidae (London, 1887); F. A. Smitt, Kritisk Forteckning ofver de i Riksmuseum befintliga Salmonider (Stockholm, 1886); V. Fatio, Faune des vertebres de la Suisse, vol. v. (1890); D. S. Jordan and B. W. Evermann, Fishes of North America, vol. i. (1896), and American Food and Game Fishes (London and New York, 1902); F. F. Kavraisky, Die Lachse der Kaukasuslander (Tiflis, 1896). On growth and migrations: Die hislochemischen und physio- logischen Arbeiten von Friedrich Miescher, Band ii., pp. 116, 192, 304, 325 (Leipzig, 1897); P. P. C. Hoek, Statische und biologische Untersuchungen an in den Niederlandern gefangenen Lachsen (Char- lottenburg, 1895) ; Annual Reports of the Fishery Board for Scotland, part ii., " Report on Salmon Fisheries," Nos. II, 12, 13, 14 (1893- 1 894-95-96) ; Report of Investigations on the Life-History of the Salmon to the Fishery Board for Scotland, edited by Noel Paton, presented to parliament and published 1898; K. Dahl, Orret og unglo.hs samt lovgivningens forhold til dem (Christiania, 1902) ; H. W. Johnston, " The Scales of Tay Salmon as indicative of Age, Growth and Spawning Habit," Ann. Rep. Fish. Board, Scotland, xxiii., appendix ii. (1905). Introduction in Tasmania and New Zealand: M. Allport, Proc. Zool. Soc. (1870), pp. 14 and 750; A. Nichol, Acclimatization of the Salmonidae at the Antipodes (London, 1882); W. Arthur, " History of Fish Culture in New Zealand," Tr. N. Zeal. Inst. xiv. (1881) p. 180; P. S. Seager, " Concise History of the Acclimatization of the Salmonids in Tasmania," Proc. R. Soc. Tasm. (1888) p. I ; also R. M. Johnston, I.e. p. 27. On the salmon disease: T. H. Huxley, Quart. Jour. Micr. Sci. xxii. (1882) p. 311. (G. A. B.) SALMONEUS, in Greek mythology, son of Aeolus (king of Magnesia in Thessaly, the mythic ancestor of the Aeolian race), grandson of Hellen and brother of Sisyphus. He removed to Elis, where he built the town of Salmone, and became ruler of the country. His subjects were ordered to worship him under the name of Zeus; he built a bridge of brass, over which he drove at full speed in his chariot to imitate thunder, the effect being heightened by dried skins and caldrons trailing behind, while torches were thrown into the air to represent lightning. At last Zeus smote him with his thunderbolt, and destroyed the town (Apollodorus i. 9. 7; Hyginus, Fab. 60, 61; Strabo viii. p. 356; Manilius, Astronom. 5, 91; Virgil, Aen. vi. 585, with Heyne's excursus). Joseph Warton's idea that the story is introduced by Virgil as a protest against the Roman custom of deification is not supported by the general tone of the Aeneid itself. According to Frazer (Early History of the Kingship, 1905 ; see also Golden Bough, i., 1900, p. 82), the early Greek kings, who were expected to produce rain for the benefit of the crops, were in the habit of imitating thunder and lightning in the character of Zeus. At Crannon in Thessaly there was a bronze chariot, which in time of drought was shaken and prayers offered for rain (Antigonus of Carystus, Historiae mirabiles, 15). S. Reinach (Revue archeologique, 1903, i. 154) suggests that the story that Salmoneus was struck by lightning was due to the misinterpretation of a picture, in which a Thessalian magician appeared bringing down lightning and rain from heaven ; hence arose the idea that he was the victim of the anger or jealousy of Zeus, and that the picture represented his punishment. SALOME, in Jewish history the name borne by several women of the Herod dynasty, (i) Sister of Herod the Great, who became the wife successively of Joseph, Herod's uncle, Costobar, governor of Idumaea, and a certain Alexas. (2) Daughter of Herod by Elpis, his eighth wife. (3) Daughter of Herodias by her first husband Herod Philip. She was the wife successively of Philip the Tetrarch and Aristobulus, son of Herod of Chalcis. This Salome is the only one of the three who is mentioned in the New Testament (Matt. xiv. 3 sqq.; Mark vi. i7sqq.) and only in connexion with the execution of John the Baptist. Herod Antipas, pleased by her dancing, offered her a reward " unto the half of my kingdom "; instructed by Herodias, she asked for John the Baptist's " head in a- charger 'u (see HEROD II. ANTIPAS). Salome is also the name of one of the women who are mentioned as present at the Crucifixion (Mark xv. 40), and afterwards in the Sepulchre (xvi. i). Comparison with Matt, xxvii. 56 suggests that she was also the wife of Zebedee (cf. Matt. xx. 20-23). It is further conjectured that she was a sister of Mary the mother of Jesus, in which case James and John would be cousins of Jesus. In the absence of specific evidence any such identifica- tion must be regarded with suspicion. SALON, a town of south-eastern France, in the department of Bouches-du-Rhone, 40 m. N.N.W. of Marseilles by rail. Pop. (1906), town, 9927; commune, 14,050. Salon is situated on the eastern border of the plain of Crau and on the irrigation canal of Craponne, the engineer of which, Adam de Craponne (1510- 1559, has a statue in the town, where he was born. The chief buildings are the church of St Laurent (i4th century), which contains the tomb of Michael Nostradamus, the famous astrologer, who died at Salon in 1565, and the church of St Michel (i2th century), with a fine Romanesque portal. The central and oldest part of the town preserves a gateway of the isth century and the remains of fortifications. There are remains of Roman walls near Salon, and in the hotel-de-ville (i?th century) there is a milestone of the 4th century. The town carries on an active trade in oil and soap, which are the chief of its numerous manu- factures. Olives are largely grown in the district, and there is a large trade in them and in almonds. SALONICA, SALONIKA or SALONIKI (anc. Tkessalonica, Turkish Selanik, Slav. Solun); the capital of the Turkish vilayet of Salonica, in western Macedonia, and one of the principal seaports of south-western Europe. Pop. (1905) about 130,000, including some 60,000 Sephardic Jews, whose ancestors fled hither in the 1 6th century to escape religious persecution in Spain and Portugal: their language is a corrupt form of Spanish, called Ladino (i.e. Latin), and spoken to some extent by other com- munities in the city. Salonica lies on the west side of the Chalcidic peninsula, at the head of the Gulf of Salonica (Sinus Thermaicus), on a fine bay whose southern edge is formed by the Calamerian heights, while its northern and western side is the broad alluvial plain produced by the discharge of the Vardar and the Bistritza, the principal rivers of western Macedonia. Built partly on the low ground along the edge of the bay and partly on the hill to the north (a compact mass of mica schist), the city with its white houses enclosed by white walls runs up along natural ravines to the castle of the Heptapyrgion, or Seven Towers, and is rendered picturesque by numerous domes and minarets and the foliage of elms, cypresses and mulberry trees. The commercial quarter of the town, lying to the north-west, towards the great valleys by which the inland traffic is conveyed, is pierced by broad and straight streets paved with lava. There are electric tram- ways and a good water-supply, but most of the older houses are fragile wooden structures coated with lime or mud, and the sanitation is defective. Apart from churches, mosques and synagogues, there are a few noteworthy modern buildings, such as the Ottoman Bank, the baths, quarantine station, schools and hospitals; but the chief architectural interest of Salonica is centred in its Roman and Byzantine remains. Antiquities.— The Via Egnatia of the Romans (mod. Jassijol or Grande Rue de Vardar) traverses the city from east to west, between the Vardar Gate and the Calamerian Gate. Two Roman triumphal arches used to span the Via Egnatia. The arch near the Vardar Gate — a massive stone structure probably erected towards the end of the ist century A.D., was destroyed in 1867 1 Charger, a large flat plate (see CHARGE). 86 SALONICA to furnish material for repairing the city walls; an imperfect inscription from it is preserved in the British Museum. The other arch, popularly called-the arch of Constantine, but with greater probability assigned to the reign of Galerius (A.D. 305-311), is built of brick and partly faced with sculptured marble. A third example of Roman architecture — the remains of a white marble portico supposed to have formed the entrance to the hippodrome — is known by the Judaeo-Spanish designation of Las Incantadas, from the eight Caryatides in the upper part of the structure. There are also numerous fragments of Roman inscriptions and statuary. The conspicuous mosques of Salonica are nearly all of an early Christian origin; the remarkable preservation of their mural decorations makes them very im- portant for the history of Byzantine architecture. The principal are those dedicated to St Sophia, St George and St Demetrius. St Sophia (Aya Sofia), formerly the cathedral, and probably erected in the 6th century by Justinian's architect Anthemius, was converted into a mosque in 1589. It is cased with slabs of white marble. The whole length of the interior is _no ft. The nave, forming a Greek cross, is surmounted by a hemispherical dome, the 600 sq. yds. of which are covered with a rich mosaic representing the Ascension. St Demetrius, which is probably older than the time of Justinian, consists of a long nave and two side aisles, each ter- minating eastward in an atrium the full height of the nave, in a style not known to occur in any other church. The columns of the aisles are half the height of those in the nave. The internal decoration is all produced by slabs of different-coloured marbles. St George's, conjecturally assigned to the reign of Constantine (d. 337), is circular in plan, measuring internally 80 ft. in diameter. The external wall is 1 8 ft. thick, and at the angles of an inscribed octagon are chapels formed in the thickness of the wall, and roofed with wagon-headed vaults visible on the exterior; the eastern chapel, however, is en- larged and developed into a bema and apse projecting beyond the circle, and the western and southern chapels constitute the two entrances of the building. The dome, 72 yds. in circumference, is covered throughout its entire surface of 800 sq. yds. with what is the largest work in ancient mosaic still extant, representing a series of fourteen saints standing in the act of adoration in front of temples and colonnades. The Eski Juma, or Old Mosque, is another interest- ing basilica, evidently later than Constantine, with side aisles and an apse without side chapels. The churches of the Holy Apostles and of St Elias also deserve mention. Of the secular buildings, the Caravanserai, usually attributed to Murad II. (1422-1451), probably dates from Byzantine times. Salonica is the see of an Orthodox Greek archbishop. Each religious community has its own schools and places of worship, among the most important being the Jewish high-school, the Greek and Bulgarian gymnasia, the Jesuit college, a high-school founded in 1860 and supported by the Jewish Mission of the Established Church of Scotland, a German school, dating from 1887, and a college for boys and a secondary school for girls, both managed by the French Mission La'ique and subsidized since 1905 by the French government. Railways, Harbour and Commerce. — Salonica is the principal Aegean seaport of the Balkan Peninsula, the centre of the import trade of all Macedonia and two-thirds of Albania, and the natural port of shipment for the products of an even larger area. It is the terminus of four railways. One line goes north to Nish in Servia, where it meets the main line (Paris- Vienna-Constantinople) of the Oriental railways; another, after following the same route as far as I -.kul i in Macedonia, branches off to Mitrovitza in Albania; the extension of this line to Serajevo in Bosnia was projected in 1908 in order to establish direct communication between Austria and Salonica. A third line, intended ultimately to reach the Adriatic, extends westward from Salonica to Monastir. A fourth, the Con- stantinople junction railway to Constantinople, is of great strategic importance; during the war with Greece in 1897 it facilitated the rapid concentration of Ottoman troops on the borders of Thessaly, and in 1908 it helped to secure the triumph of the Young Turks by bringing the regiments favourable to their propaganda within striking distance of Constantinople. The new harbour, which was opened to navigation in December 1901, allows the direct transhipment of all merchandise whatever may be the direction of the wind, which was previously apt to render shipping operations difficult. The harbour works consist of a breakwater 1835 ft. long, with 28 ft. depth of water on its landward side for a width of 492 ft. Opposite the breakwater is a quay '475 ft- long, which was widened in 1903—1907 to a breadth of 306 ft. ; at each end of the quay a pier 656 ft. long projects into the sea. Between the extremities of these two piers and those of the breakwater are the two entrances to the harbour. The average number of ships, including small coasters, which entered the port in each of the three years 1905-1907 was 3400, of 930,000 tons. Salonica exports grain, flour, bran, silk cocoons, chrome, manganese, iron, hides and ukins, cattle and sheep, wool, eggs, opium, tobacco and fennel. The average yearly value of the imports from 1900 to 1905 was £2,500,000, and that of the exports £1,200,000. The imports consist principally of textiles, iron goods, sugar, tobacco, flour, coffee and chemicals. The volume of the export trade tended to decrease in the first decade of the 2Oth century. The making of morocco leather and other leather-work, such as saddlery, harness and boots and shoes, affords employment to a large number of persons. Other industries are cotton-spinning, brewing, tanning, iron-founding, and the manufacture of bricks, tiles, soap, flour, ironmongery and ice. The spirit called mastic or raki is largely produced. History. — Thessalonica was built on the site of the older Greek city of Therma, so called in allusion to the hot-springs of the neighbourhood. It was founded in 315 B.C. by Cassander, who gave it the name of his wife, a sister of Alexander the Great. It was a military and commercial station on a main line of com- munication between Rome and the East, and had reached its zenith before the seat of empire was transferred to Constantinople. It became famous in connexion with the early history of Christ- ianity through the two epistles addressed by St Paul to the community which he founded here; and in the later defence of the ancient civilization against the barbarian inroads it played a considerable part. In 390 7000 citizens who had been guilty of insurrection were massacred in the hippodrome by command of Theodosius. Constantine repaired the port, and probably enriched the town with some of its buildings. During the iconoclastic reigns of terror it stood on the defensive, and succeeded in saving the artistic treasures of its churches: in the Qth century Joseph, one of its bishops, died in chains for his defence of image-worship. In the 7th century the Macedonian Slavs strove to capture the city, but failed even when it was thrown into confusion by a terrible earthquake. It was the attempt made to transfer the whole Bulgarian trade to Thes- salonica that in the close of the gth century caused the invasion of the empire by Simeon of Bulgaria. In 904 the Saracens from the Cyrenaica took the place by storm; the public buildings were grievously injured, and the inhabitants to the number of 22,000 were carried off and sold as slaves throughout the countries of the Mediterranean. In 1185 the Normans of Sicily took Thessalonica after a ten days' siege, and perpetrated endless barbarities, of which Eustathius, then bishop of the see, has left an account. In 1 204 Baldwin, conqueror of Constanti- nople, conferred the kingdom of Thessalonica on Boniface, marquis of Montferrat; but in 1222 Theodore, despot of Epirus, one of the natural enemies of the new kingdom, took the city and had himself there crowned by the patriarch of Macedonian Bulgaria. On the death of Demetrius, who had been supported in his endeavour to recover his father's throne by Pope Honorius III., the empty title of king of Salonica was adopted by several claimants. In 1266 the house of Burgundy received a grant of the titular kingdom from Baldwin II. when he was titular emperor, and it was sold by Eudes IV. to Philip of Tarentum, titular emperor of Romania, in 1320. The Venetians to whom the city was transferred by one of the Palaeologi, were in power when Murad II. appeared, and on the ist of May 1430, in spite of the desperate resistance of the inhabitants, took the city, which had thrice previously been in the hands of the Turks. They cut to pieces the body of St Demetrius, the patron saint of Salonica, who had been the Roman proconsul of Greece, under Maximian, and was martyred in A.D. 306. In 1876 the French and German consuls at Salonica were murdered by the Turkish populace. On the 4th of September 1890 more than 2000 houses were destroyed by fire in the south-eastern quarters of the city. During the early years of the 2oth century Salonica was the headquarters of the Committee of Union and Progress, the central organization of the Young Turkey Party, which carried out the constitutional revolution of 1908. Before this event the weakness of Turkey had encouraged the belief that Salonica would ultimately pass under the control of Austria-Hungary or one of the Balkan States, and this belief gave rise to many political intrigues which helped to delay the solution of the Macedonian Question. Vilayet. — The vilayet of Salonica has an area of 13,510 sq. m. and an estimated population of 1,150,000. It is rich in minerals, including chrome, manganese, zinc, antimony, iron, argentiferous SALOON— SALT lead, arsenic and lignite, but some of these are unworked. The chief agricultural products are grain, rice, beans, cotton, opium and poppy seed, sesame, fennel, red pepper, and much of the finest tobacco grown in Europe; there is also some trade in timber, live- stock, skins, furs, wool and silk cocoons. The growth of commerce has been impeded by the ignorance of cultivators, the want of good roads and the unsettled political condition of Turkey. Apart from the industries carried on in the capital, there are manufactures of wine liqueurs, sesame oil, cloth, macaroni and soap. The principal towns, Seres (pop. 30,000), Vodena (25,000) and Cavalla (24,000), are described in separate articles; Tikvesh (21,000) is the centre of an agricultural region, Caraferia (14,000) a manufacturing town, and Drama (13,000) one of the centres of tobacco cultivation. SALOON, a large room for the reception of guests in a mansion. The French salon itself is formed from salle, Ger. Saal, hall, reception-room, represented in Old English by the cognate seel, hall, properly " abiding-place," from the root seen in Gothic saljan, to dwell, cf. Russ. selo, village. The word in its proper sense has now a somewhat archaistic flavour, being chiefly used of the 1 8th century, and it has come principally to be used (i) of the large rooms on passenger steamers; (2) on English railways of carriages for the accommodation of large parties not divided into compartments, and in the United States of the so-called " drawing-room cars "; and (3) of a bar or place for the sale of intoxicants. SALSAFY, or SALSIFY, Tragopogon porrifolius, a hardy biennial, with long, cylindrical, fleshy, esculent roots, which, when properly cooked, are extremely delicate and wholesome; it occurs in meadows and pastures in the Mediterranean region, and in Britian is confined to the south of England, but is not native. The salsafy requires a free, rich, deep soil, which should be trenched in autumn, the manure used being placed at two spades' depth from the surface. The first crop should be sown in March, and the main crop in April, in rows a foot from each other, the plants being afterwards thinned to 8 in. apart. In November the whitish roots should be taken up and stored in sand for immediate use, others being secured in a similar way during intervals of mild weather. The genus Tragopogon belongs to the natural order Compositae, and is represented in Britain by goat's beard, T. pratmsis, found in meadows, pastures and waste places. The flowers close at noon, whence the popular name " John-go-to-bed-at-noon." SALSETTE ( = " sixty-six villages "), a large island in British India, N. of Bombay city, forming part of Thana district. Area, 246 sq. m. It is connected with Bombay Island and also with the mainland by bridge and causeway. Salsette is a beautiful, well-wooded tract, its surface being diversified by hills and mountains, some of considerable height, while it is rich in rice fields. In various parts of the island are ruins of Portuguese churches, convents and villas; while the cave temples of Kanheri form a subject of interest. There are 109 Buddhist caves, which date from the end of the 2nd century A.D., but are not so interesting as those of Ajanta, Ellora and Karli. Salsette is crossed by two lines of railway, which have encouraged the building of villa residences by the wealthier merchants of Bombay. The population in 1901 was 146,933. The island was taken from the Portuguese by the Mahrattas in 1739, and from them by the British in 1774; it was formally annexed to the East India Company's dominions in 1782 by the treaty of Salbai. There is another Salsette in the Portuguese settlement of Goa, a district with a population (1900) of 113,061. SALSOMAGGIORE, a village of Emilia, Italy, in the province of Parma, 6 m. S.W. of Borgo San Donnino by steam tramway. Pop. (1901) 1387 (village); 7274 (commune). It is situated 525 ft. above sea-level at the foot of the Apennines, and is a popular watering-place, the baths being especially frequented. The water is strongly saline. SALT, SIR TITUS, BART.(i8o3-i876), English manufacturer, was born on the 2Oth of September 1803, at Morley, Yorkshire. In 1820 he was apprenticed to learn wool-stapling at Bradford, and his father, having followed him there and started in that business, took him into partnership in 1824. His success in intro- ducing the coarse Russian wool (donskoi) into English worsted manufacture, due to special machinery of his own devising, gave his firm a great impetus. In 1836 he solved the difficulties of working alpaca (q.v.) wool, created an enormous industry n the production of the staple goods for which that name was retained, and became one of the richest manufacturers in Brad- ford. In 1853 he opened, a few miles out of the city on the Aire, the extensive works and model manufacturing town of Saltaire. From 1859-1861 Salt was M. P. for Bradford, of which city he had oeen mayor in 1848, and in 1869 he was created a baronet. He died on the 2oth of September 1876, and was accorded a public funeral. After his death his many benevolent institutions at Saltaire, at first continued by his widow, were transferred to a trust. See R. Balgarnie, Sir Titus Salt, his Life and its Lessons. SALT (a common Teutonic word, cf. Dutch zout, Ger. Salz, Scand. salt; cognate with Gr. aXs, Lat. sal). In chemistry the term salt is given to a compound formed by substituting the bydrogen of an acid by a metal or a radical acting as a metal, or, what comes to the same thing, by eliminating the elements of water between an acid and a base (see ACID; CHEMISTRY). Common Salt. Common salt, or simply salt, is the name given to the native and industrial forms of sodium chloride, NaCl. Pure sodium chloride, which may be obtained by passing hydrochloric acid gas into a saturated solution of the commercial salt, whereupon it is precipitated, forms colourless, crystalline cubes (see also below under Rock salt) which melt at 815.4°, and begins to volatilize at slightly higher temperatures. It is readily soluble in water, 100 parts of which dissolve 35-52 parts at o° and 39.16 parts at 100°. The saturated solution at 109.7° contains 40-35 parts of salt to 100 of water. On cooling a saturated solution to -10°, or by cooling a solution in hot hydrochloric acid, the hydrate NaCl. 2H2O separates; on further cooling an aqueous solution to -20° a cryohydrate containing 23-7% of the salt is deposited. The consideration of this important substance falls under two heads, relating respectively to sea salt or " bay " salt and " rock " salt or mineral salt. The one is probably derived from the other, most rock salt deposits bearing evidence of having been formed by the evaporation of lakes or seas. Sea Salt. — Assuming that each gallon of sea water contains 0-2547 Ib of salt, and allowing an average density 2-24 for rock- salt, it has been computed that the entire ocean if dried up would yield no less than four and a half million cubic miles of rock-salt, or about fourteen and a half times the bulk of the entire continent of Europe above high-water mark. The proportion of sodium chloride in the water of the ocean, where it is mixed with small quantities of other salts, is on the average about 3.33%, ranging from 2-9% for the polar seas to 3-55% or more at the equator. Enclosed seas, such as the Mediterranean, the Red Sea, the Black Sea, the Dead Sea, the Caspian and others, are dependent of course for the proportion and quality of their saline matter on local circumstances (see OCEAN). At one time almost the whole of the salt in commerce was produced from the evaporation of sea water, and indeed salt so made still forms a staple commodity in many countries possessing a seaboard, especially those where the climate is dry and the summer of long duration. In Portugal there are salt works at Setubal, Alcacer do Sal, Figueira and Aveiro. Spain has salt works at the Bay of Cadiz, the Balearic Islands, &c.; Italy at Sicily, Naples, Tuscany and Sardinia. France has its " marais salants du midi " and also works on the Atlantic seaboard; whilst Austria has " Salzgarten " at various places on the Adriatic (Sabbioncello, Trieste, Pirano, Capo d'Istria,&c.). In England and Scotland the industry has greatly fallen off under the competition of the rock-salt works of Cheshire. The process of the spontaneous evaporation of sea water was studied by Usiglio on Mediterranean water at Cette. The density at first was 1-02. Primarily but a slight deposit is formed (none until the concentration arrives at specific gravity 1-0509), this deposit consisting for the most part of calcium carbonate and ferric oxide. This goes on till a density of 1-1315 isattained, when hydrated calcium sulphate begins to deposit, and continues till specific gravity 1-2646 is reached. At a density of 1-218 the deposit becomes augmented by sodium chloride, which goes down mixed with a little magnesium chloride and sulphate. At specific gravity 1-2461 a 88 SALT little sodium bromide has begun also to deposit. At specific gravity 1-311 the volume of the water contained — Magnesium sulphate .... 11-45% Magnesium chloride .... 19-53 % Sodium chloride 15-98% Sodium bromide 2-04% Potassium chloride .... 3-30 % Up to the time then that the water became concentrated to specific gravity 1-218 only 0-150 of deposit had formed, and that chiefly composed of lime and iron, but between specific gravity 1-218 and 1-313 there is deposited a mixture of — Calcium sulphate . Magnesium sulphate Magnesium chloride Sodium chloride Sodium bromide 0-0283 % 0-0624% 0-0153% 2-7107% O-O222 % 2-8389% Of this about 95% is sodium chloride. Up to this point the separation of the salts has taken place in a fairly regular manner, but now the temperature begins to exert an influence, and some of the salts deposited in the cold of the night dissolve again partially in the heat of the day. By night the liquor gives nearly pure mag- nesium sulphate; in the day the same sulphate mixed with sodium and potassium chlorides is deposited. The mother-liquor now falls to a specific gravity of 1-3082 to 1-2965, and yields a very mixed deposit of magnesium bromide and chloride, ootassium chloride and magnesium sulphate, with the double magnesium and potassium sulphate, corresponding to the kainite of Stassfurt. There is also deposited a double magnesium and potassium chloride, similar to the carnallite of Stassfurt, and finally the mother-liquor, which has now again risen to specific gravity 1-3374, contains only pure mag- nesium chloride. The application of these results to the production of salt from sea water is obvious. A large piece of land, barely above high-water mark, is levelled, and if necessary puddled with clay. In tidal seas a " jas " (or storage reservoir) is constructed alongside, similarly rendered impervious, in which the water is allowed to settle and concentrate to a certain extent. In non-tidal seas this storage basin is not required. The prepared land is partitioned off into large basins (adernes or muants) and others (called in France aires, eeuillets or tables salantcs) which get smaller and more shallow in proportion as they are intended to receive the water as it becomes more and more concentrated, just sufficient fall being allowed from one set of basins to the other to cause the water to flow slowly through them. The flow is often assisted by pimping. The sea salt thus made is collected into small heaps on the paths around the basins or the floors of the basins themselves, and here it under- goes a first partial purification, the more deliquescent salts (especially the magnesium chloride) being allowed to drain away. From these heaps it is collected into larger ones, where it drains further, and becomes more purified. The salt is collected from the surface by means of a sort of wooden scoop or scraper, but in spite of every precaution some of the soil on which it is produced is inevitably taken up with it, communicating a red or grey tint. Generally speaking this salt, which may contain up to 15% of impurities, goes into commerce just as it is, but in some cases it is taken first to the refinery, where it either is simply washed and then stove-dried before being sent out, or is dissolved in fresh water and then boiled down and crystallized like white salt from rock-salt brine. The salt of the " salines du midi " of the south-east of France is far purer, containing about 5% of impurities. In northern Russia and in Siberia sea water is concentrated by freezing, the ice which separates containing little salt ; the brine is then boiled down when an impure sea salt is deposited. Rock-salt. — To mineralogists rock-salt is often known as halite — a name suggested in 1847 by E. F. Glocker from the Greek &Xs (salt). The word halite, however, is sometimes used not only for the species rock-salt but as a group-name to include a series of haloid minerals, of which that species is the type. Halite or rock-salt crystallizes in the cubic system, usually in cubes, rarely in octahedra; the cubes being solid, unlike the skeleton-cubes obtained by rapid evaporation of brine. The mineral has perfect cubic cleavage. Percussion- figures, readily made on the cleavage-faces, have rays parallel to faces of the rhombic dodecahedron; whilst figures etched with water represent the four-faced cube. Rock-salt commonly occurs in cleavable masses, or sometimes in laminar, granular or fibrous forms, the finely fibrous variety being known as "hair-salt." The hardness is 2 to 2-5 and the spec. grav. 2-1 to 2-6. Rock-salt when pure is colourless and transparent, but is usually red or brown by mechanical admixture with ferric oxide or hydroxide. The salt is often grey, through bituminous matter or other impurity, and rarely green, blue or violet. The blue colour, which disappears on heating or dissolving the salt, has been variously ascribed to the presence of sodium subchloride, sodium, sulphur or of a certain compound of iron, or again to the existence of minute cavities with parallel walls. Halite occasionally exhibits double refraction, perhaps due to natural pressure. It is remarkably diathermanous, or capable of transmitting heat-rays, and has therefore been used in certain physical investigations. Pure halite consists only of sodium chloride, but salt usually contains certain magnesium ccmpounds rendering it deliquescent. Minute vesicular cavities are not infrequently present, sometimes as negative cubes, and these may contain saline solutions or carbon dioxide or gaseous hydrocarbons. Some salt decrepitates on solution (Knistersah), the phenomenon being due to the escape of condensed gases. Halite may occur as a sublimate on lava, as at Vesuvius and some other volcanoes, where it is generally associated with potassium chloride; but its usual mode of occurrence is in bedded deposits, often lenticular, and sometimes of great thick- ness. The salt is commonly associated with gypsum, often also with anhydrite, and occasionally with sylvite, carnallite and other minerals containing potassium and magnesium. Deposits of rock-salt have evidently been formed by the evaporation of salt water, probably in areas of inland drainage or enclosed basins, like the Dead Sea and the Great Salt Lake of Utah, or perhaps in some cases in an arm of the sea partially cut off, like the Kara Bughaz, which forms a natural salt-pan on the east side of the Caspian. Such beds of salt are found in strata of very varied geological age; the Salt Range of the Punjab, for instance, is probably of Cambrian age, while the famous salt- deposits of Wieliczka, near Cracow, have been referred to the Pliocene period. In many parts of the world, including the British area, the Triassic age offered conditions especially favourable for the formation of large salt -deposits. In England extensive deposits of rock-salt are found near the base of the Keuper marl, especially in Cheshire. The mineral occurs generally in lenticular deposits, which may reach a thickness of more than 100 ft. ; but it is mined only to a limited extent, most of the salt being obtained from brine springs and wells which derive their saline character from deposits of salts. Much salt is obtained from north Lancashire, as also from the brine pits of Staffordshire, Worcestershire, Yorkshire, Durham and the Isle of Man (Point of Ayre). The salt of N.E. Yorkshire and S. Durham is regarded1 by some authorities as Permian, but that near Carrickfergus ir Co. Antrim, Ireland, is undoubtedly of Triassic age. The Antrim salt was discovered in 1850 during a search for coal: one of the beds at Duncrue mine has a thickness of 80 ft. Important deposits of rock- salt occur in the Keuper at Berchtesgaden, in the Bavarian Alps; at Hall in Tirol and at Hallcin, Hallstatt, Ischl and Aussee in the Sajzkammergut in Austria. Salt occurs in the Muschelkalk at Friedrichshall and some other localities in Wurttemberg and Thur- ingia; and in the Bunter at Sch&ningcn near Brunswick. The Permian system (Zechstein) yields the great salt-deposits worked at Stassfurt and at Halle in Prussian Saxony. The Stassfurt deposits are of special importance for the sake of the associated salts of potassium and magnesium, such as carnallite and kainite. These deposits, in addition to having a high commercial importance, present certain problems which have received much attention, more particularly at the hands of van't Hoff and his collaborators, whose results are embodied in his Zur Bildung der ozeanischen Salzab- lagerungen, vol. i. (1905), vol. ii. (1909). (A summary is given in A. W. Stewart, Recent Advances in Physical and Inorganic Chemistry, 1909; see also van't Hoff, Lectures on Theoretical and Physical Chemistry, vol. i.) A typical section is as follows: Beneath the surface soil of sandstone there is a layer up to 100 ft. in thickness of carnallite, MgClj-KCl-6H2O, mixed with a little salt; this is followed by a thicker deposit of kieserite, MgSOi-HjO, containing rather more salt than the upper bed. Deeper down there are suc- cessively strata of polyhahte, MgSO<-K2SO4-2CaSO4-2HaO, and anhydrite, CaSC>4, interspersed with regular layers of rock-salt; whilst below the anhydrite we have the main rock-salt deposits. A bed of rock-salt in the Zechstein at Spercnberg near Berlin has been proved by boring to have a thickness of upwards of 4000 ft. The salt of Bex in Switzerland is Jurassic, whilpt Cretaceous salt occurs in Westphalia and Algiers. Important deposits of salt are developed in many parts of trie Tertiary strata. At Cardona, near Barcelona, Tertiary salt forms hill-masses, while the Carpathian SALT 89 sandstone in Galicia and Transylvania is rich in salt. The extensive mines at Wieliczka are in this rock-salt, as also is the salt of Kalusz in Galicia, which is associated with sylvite, KC1. In North America salt is widely distributed at various geological horizons. In New York it occurs in the Salina beds of the Ononclaga series, of Silurian age; and Silurian salt is found also in parts of Michigan and in Ontario, Canada. Some of the salt of Michigan is regarded as Carboniferous. Rock-salt is mined in several states, as New York, Kansas and Louisiana; but American salt is mostly obtained from brine. Deposits of salt, regarded as either Cretaceous or Tertiary, occur in the island of Petite Anse, west of Vermilion Bay, in Louisiana. Salt often occurs in association with petroleum and natural gas, and extensive beds were discovered in the Wyoming valley in boring for petroleum. In the dry regions of the West salt occurs as an incrustation on the surface of the soil — a mode of occurrence found in desert areas in various parts of the world. Cubic pseudomorphs representing rock-salt are sometimes seen in strata which have been deposited in shallow water, especially on the margin of a salt-lake. The salt has been dissolved out of its original matrix, and the cavity so formed has then been filled with fine clayey or other mineral matter, forming a cubic cast. Such casts are not infrequent in the Keuper marls and sandstones, and in the Purbeck beds of England. Manufacture. — The chief centres of manufacture in England are at Northwich, Middlewich, Winsford and Sandbach in Cheshire, Weston-on-Trent in Staffordshire, Stoke Prior and Droitwich in Worcestershire and Middlesbrough in Yorkshire.1 The Cheshire and Worcestershire salt deposits are by far the most important. Although brine springs have been known to exist in both these counties ever since the Roman occupation, and salt had been made there from time immemorial, it was not till 1670 that rock-salt about 30 yds. thick was discovered at Marbury near Northwich by some men exploring for coal, at a depth of 34 yds. In 1779 three beds of rock-salt were discovered at Lawton, separated from one another by layers of indurated clay. The old Marston or Marston Rock mine is the largest and perhaps the oldest in England. It was worked for about a hundred years in only its upper bed, 'but in 1781, after traversing a layer of indurated clay intersected with small veins of salt 10^ yds. thick, a layer of rock-salt 33 to 37 yds. thick was found. Beneath it are others, but they are thin and im- pure. The total depth of the mine to the bottom of the lower level is 120 yds. At Winsford, where the same formation seems to recur, it is 159 yds. from the surface. The Marston mine covers an area of about 40 acres. The salt is first reached at 35-40 yds. in the North- wich district, and the upper layer is 25-50 yds. in thickness (Marston 23-26 yds.) ; it has above it, apparently lying in the recesses of its surface, a layer of saturated brine. This is the brine which is raised at the various pumping stations in Northwich and elsewhere around, and which serves to produce white salt. The beds are reached by sinking through the clays and variegated marls typical of this for- mation. The salt is blasted out with gunpowder. The Middles- brough deposit was discovered by Bolckow and Vaughan in boring for water in 1862 at a depth of 400 yds., but was not utilized, and was again found by Messrs Bell Brothers at Port Clarence at a depth of 376 yds. In Cheshire the surface-water trickling through the overlying strata dissolves the salt, which is subsequently pumped as brine, but at Middlesbrough the great depth and impermeability of the strata precludes this, so another method has been resorted to. A bore is made into the salt, and lined with tubing, and this tube where it traverses the salt is pierced with holes. Within this is hung loosely a second tube of much smaller dimensions so as to leave an annular space between the two. Through this space the fresh surface water finds its way, and dissolving the salt below rises in the inner tube as brine, but only to such a level that the two columns bear to one another the relation of ten to twelve, this being the inverse ratio of the respective weights of saturated brine and fresh water. For the remaining distance the brine is raised by a pump. The fresh water, however, as it descends rises to the surface of the salt, tending rather to dissolve its upper layers and extend superficially, so that after a time the superincumbent soil, being without support, falls in. These interior landslips, besides choking the pipes and breaking the communication, often produce sinkings at the surface. The same inconvenience is felt in the environs of Nancy, and a similar one produces on a larger scale the sinking and subsidences at Winsford and Northwich. In the United States extensive deposits and brine springs are worked, and also incrustations (see above). Canada also is a pro- ducer. South America possesses several salt deposits and brine springs. Asiatic Russia is very abundantly supplied with salt, as likewise is China; and Persia is perhaps one of the countries most abundantly endowed with this natural and useful product. In India there is the great salt range of the Punjab, as well as the Sambhur Lake, and salt is obtained from sea water at many places along its extensive seaboard. 1 The termination " wich " in English place-names often points to ancient salt manufacture-^the word " wich " (creek, bay; Icel. vik) having acquired a special sense in English usage. In Germany the various forms of the non-Teutonic words Hall, Halle occurring in place-names point in the same way to ancient salt-works. Rock-salt is the origin of the greater part of the salt manufactured in the world. It occurs in all degrees of purity, fAjm that of mere salty clay to that of the most transparent crystals. In the former case it is often difficult to obtain the brine at a density even approach- ing saturation, and chambers and galleries are sometimes excavated within the saliferous beds to increase the dissolving surface, and water let down fresh is pumped up as brine. Many brine springs also occur in a more or less saturated condition. In cases where the atmospheric conditions are suitable the brine is run into large tanks and concentrated merely by solar heat, or it may be caused to trickle over faggots arranged under large open sheds called " gradua- tion houses " (Gradirhauser), whereby a more extensive surface of evaporation is obtained and the brine becomes rapidly concentrated. After settling it is evaporated in iron pans. The use, however, of the "graduation houses" is dying out, as both their construction and their maintenance are expensive. The purer rock-salt is often simply ground for use, as at Wieliczka and elsewhere, but it is more frequently pumped as brine, produced either by artificial solution as at Middlesbrough and other places, or by natural means, as in Cheshire and Worcestershire. One great drawback to the use of even the purest rock-salt simply ground is its tendency to revert to a hard unwieldy mass, when kept any length of time in sacks. As usually made, white salt from rock-salt may be classified into two groups: (i) boiled: known as fine, table, lump, stoved lump, superfine, basket, butter and cheese salt (Fr. set Jin-fin, sel d la minute, &c.); (2) unboiled: common, chemical, fishery, Scotch fishery, extra fishery, double extra fishery and bay salt (Fr. sel de 12, 24, 48, 60 and 72 heures). All these names are derived from the size and appearance of the crystals, their uses and the modes of their production. The boiled salts, the crystals of which are small, are formed in a medium constantly agitated by boiling. The fine or stoved table salts are those white masses with which we are all familiar. Basket salt takes its name from the conical baskets from which it is allowed to drain when first it is " drawn " from the pan. Butter and cheese salts are not stove-dried, but left in their more or less moist condition, as being thus more easily applied to their respective uses. Of the unboiled salts the first two, corresponding to the Fr. sel de 12 heures and sel de 24 heures, show by their English names the use to which they are applied, and the others merely depend for their quality on the length of time which elapses between successive " drawings, ' and the temperature of the evaporation. The time varies for the unboiled salts from twelve hours to three or four weeks, the larger crystals being allowed a longer time to form, and the smaller ones being formed more quickly. The temperature varies from 55° to 180° F. One difference between the manufacture of salt from rock-salt brine as carried on in Britain and on the Continent lies in the use in the latter case of closed or covered pans, except in the making of fine salt, whereas in Britain open ones are employed. With open pans the vapour is free to diffuse itself into the atmosphere, and the evaporation is perhaps more rapid. When covered pans are used, the loss of heat by radiation is less, and the salt made is also cleaner. It has also been proposed to concentrate the brines under diminished pressure. In S. Pick's system a triple effect is obtained by evapora- ting in these connected vessels, so that the steam from one heats the second into which it is led (see Soc. of Eng., 1891, p. 115). In Britain the brine is so pure that, keeping a small stream of it running into the pan to replace the losses by evaporation and the removal of the salt, it is only necessary occasionally (not often) to reject the mother-liquor when at last it becomes too impure with magnesium chloride ; but in some works the mother-liquor not only contains more of this impurity but becomes quite brown from organic matter on concentration, and totally unfit for further service after yielding but two or three crops of salt crystals. Some- times, to get rid of these impurities, the brine is treated in a large tub (bessoir) with lime; on settling it becomes clear and colourless, but the dissolved lime forms a skin on its surface in the pan, retards the evaporation and impedes the crystallization. At times sodium sulphate is added to the brine, producing sodium chloride and mag- nesium sulphate by double decomposition with the magnesium chloride. A slight degree of acidity seems more favourable to the crystallization of salt than alkalinity; thus it is a practice to add a certain amount of alum, 2 to 12 ft per pan of brine, especially when, as in fishery salt, fine crystals are required. The salt is " drawn " from the pan and placed (in the case of boiled salts) in small conical baskets hung round the pan to drain, and thence moulded in square boxes and afterwards stove-dried, or (in case of unboiled salts) " drawn " in a heap on to the " hurdles," on which it drains, and thence is carried to the store. In most European countries a tax is laid on salt; and the coarser as well as the finer crystals are therefore often dried so as not to pay duty on more water than can be helped. The brine used in the salt manufacture in England is very nearly saturated, containing 25 or 26% of sodium chloride, the utmost water can take up being 27%; and it ranges from 38 to 42 oz. of salt per gallon. In some other countries the brine has to be concen- trated before use. Saltmaking is by no means an unhealthy trade, some slight soreness of the eyes being the only affection sometimes complained of; indeed the atmosphere of steam saturated with salt in which 9o SALTA the workmen live seems specially preservative against colds, rheu- matism, neuralgia, &c. A parliamentary commission was appointed in 1881 to investigate the causes of the disastrous subsidences which are constantly taking place in all the salt districts, and the provision of a remedy. It led to no legislative action; but the evil is recognized as a grave one. At Northwich and Winsford scarcely a house or a chimney stack remains straight. Houses are keyed up with " snaps," " face plates " and " bolts," and only kept from falling by leaning on one another. The doors and windows have become lozenge-shaped, the walls bulged and the floors crooked. Buildings have sunk — some of them disappearing altogether. Lakes have been formed where there was solid ground before, and incalculable damage done to property in all quarters. At the same time it is difficult to see how this grievance can be remedied without inflicting serious injury, almost ruin, upon the salt trade. The workings in Great Britain represent the annual abstraction of rather more than a mass of rock equal to a foot in thickness spread over a square mile. The table gives the outputs in metric tons of the most important producers in 1900 and 1905 (from Rothwell, Mineral Industry, 1908). Salt Production in Metric Tons. 1900. 1905. Austria 330.277 343.375 France 1,088,634 1,130,000 Germany .... 1,514,027 1.777,557 Hungary .... 189.363 I95,4io India i ,02 1 ,426 1,212,600 Italy 367,255 437.699 Japan 669,694 483,506 Russia 1,768,005 1,844,678 Spain .... 450,041 493-451 United Kingdom . 1,873,601 1,920,149 United States . 2,651,278 3,297,285 See F. A. Purer, Salzbergbau- und Salinenkunde (Braunschweig, 1900) ; J. O. Freiherr von Buschmann, Das Salz: dessen Vorkommen und Verwertung (Leipzig, vol. I, 1909, vol. 2, 1906). (X.) Ancient History and Religious Symbolism. — Salt must have been quite unattainable to primitive man in many parts of the world. Thus the Odyssey (xi. 122 seq.) speaks of inlanders (in Epirus ?) who do not know the sea and use no salt with their food. In some parts of America, and even of India (among the Todas), salt was first intro- duced by Europeans; and there are still parts of central Africa where the use of it is a luxury confined to the rich. Indeed, where men live mainly on milk and flesh, consuming the latter raw or roasted, so that its salts are not lost, it is not necessary to add sodium chloride, and thus we understand how the Numidian nomads in the time of Sallust and the Bedouins of Hadramut at the present day never eat salt with their food. On the other hand, cereal or vegetable diet calls for a supplement of salt, and so does boiled meat. The important part played by the mineral in the history of commerce and religion depends on this fact ; at a very early stage of progress salt became a necessary of life to most nations, and in many cases they could procure it only from abroad, from the sea-coast, or from districts like that of Palmyra where salty incrustations are found on the surface of the soil. Sometimes indeed a kind of salt was got from the ashes of saline plants (e.g. by the Umbrians, Aristotle, Met. ii. p. 4^59), or by pouring the water of a brackish stream over a fire of (saline) wood and collecting the ashes, as was done in ancient Germany (Tac. Ann. xiii. 57), in Gaul and in Spain (Plin. H.N. xxxi. 7. 82 seq.) ; but these were imperfect surrogates. Among inland peoples a salt spring was regarded as a special gift of the gods. The Chaonians in Epirus had one which flowed into a stream where there were no fish; and the legend was that Heracles had allowed then- forefathers to have salt instead of fish (Arist. ut supra). The Ger- mans waged war for saline streams, and believed that the presence of salt in the soil invested a district with peculiar sanctity and made it a place where prayers were most readily heard (Tac. ut sup.). That a religious significance was attached to a substance so highly prized and which was often obtained with difficulty is no more than natural. And it must also be remembered that the habitual use of salt is intimately connected with the advance from nomadic to agricultural life, i.e. with precisely that step in civilization which had most influence on the cults of almost all ancient nations. The gods were worshipped as the givers of the kindly fruits of the earth, and, as all over the world " bread and salt " go together in common use and common phrase, salt was habitually associated with offerings, at least with all offerings which consisted in whole or in part of cereal elements. This practice is found alike among the Greeks and Romans and among the Semitic peoples (Lev. ii. 13); Homer calls salt " divine," and Plato names it " a substance^ dear to the gods " (Timaeus, p.. 60; cf. Plutarch, Sympos. v. ip). As covenants were ordinarily made over a sacrificial meal, in which salt was a necessary element, the expression " a covenant of salt " (Numb, xviii. 19) is easily understood; it is probable, however, that the preservative qualities of salt were held to make it a peculiarly fitting symbol of an enduring compact, and influenced the choice of this particular element of the covenant meal as that which was regarded as sealing an obligation to fidelity. Among the ancients, as among Orientals down to the present day, every meal that included salt had a certain sacred character and created a bond of piety and guest friendship between the participants. Hence the Greek phrase iXos «eU rpaiftfav irapaftalixiy, the Arab phrase " there is salt between us," the expression " to eat the salt of the palace " (Ezra iv. 14, R.V.), the modern Persian phrase namak haram, " untrue to salt," i.e. disloyal or ungrateful, and many others. Both early in the history of the Roman army and in later times an allowance of salt was made to officers and men. In imperial times, however, this solarium was an allowance of money for salt (see SALARY). It has been conjectured that some of the oldest trade routes were created for traffic in salt; at any rate salt and incense, the chief economic and religious necessaries ot the ancient world, play a great part in all that we know of the ancient highways of commerce. Thus one of the oldest roads in Italy is the Via Solaria, by which the produce of the salt pans of Ostia was carried up into the Sabine country. Herodotus s account of the caravan route uniting the salt- oases of the Libyan desert (iv. 181 seq.) makes it plain that this was mainly a salt-road, and to the present day the caravan trade of the Sahara is largely a trade in salt. The salt of Palmyra was an im- portant element in the vast trade between the Syrian ports and the Persian Gulf (see PALMYRA), and long after the glory of the great merchant city was past " the salt of Tadmor " retained its reputation (Mas'udi viii. 398). In like manner the ancient trade between the Aegean and the coasts of southern Russia was largely dependent on the salt pans at the mouth of the Dnieper and on the salt fish brought from this district (Herod, iv. 53 ; Dio Chrys. p. 437). In Phoenician commerce salt and salt fish — the latter a valued delicacy in the ancient world — always formed an important item. The vast salt mines of northern India were worked before the time of Alexander (Strabo v. 2, 6, xv. I, 30) and must have been the centre of a wide- spread trade. The economic importance of salt is further indicated by the almost universal prevalence in ancient and medieval times, and indeed in most countries down to the present day, of salt taxes or of government monopolies, which have not often been directed, as they were in ancient Rome, to enable every one to procure so necessary a condiment at a moderate price. In Oriental systems of taxation high imposts on salt are seldom lacking and are often carried out in a very oppressive way, one result of this being that the article is apt to reach the consumer in a very impure state largely mixed with earth. " The salt which has lost its savour " (Matt. v. 13) is simply the earthy residuum of such an impure salt after the sodium chloride has been washed out. Cakes of salt have been used as money in more than one part of the world — for example, in Abyssinia and elsewhere in Africa, and in Tibet and adjoining parts. See the testimony of Marco Polo (bk. ii. ch. 48) and Colonel Yule's note upon analogous customs elsewhere and on the use of salt as a medium of exchange in the Shan markets down to our own time, in his translation of Polo ii. 48 seq. In the same work interesting details are given as to the importance of salt in the financial system of the Mongol emperors (ii. 200 seq.). (W. R. S.) SALTA, a N.W. province of Argentina, bounded N. by Bolivia and the province of Jujuy, E. by the territories of Formosa and the Chaco, S. by Santiago del Estero and Tucuman, and W. by the Los Andes territory and Bolivia. Area, 62,184 sq. m.; pop. (1904, estimated) 136,059. The western part of the province is mountainous, being traversed from N. to S. by the eastern chains of 'the Andes. Indenting these, however, are large valleys, or bays, of highly fertile and comparatively level land, like that in which the city of Salta is situated. The eastern part of the province is chiefly composed of extensive areas of alluvial plains belonging to the Chaco formation, whose deep, fertile soils are among the best in Argentina. This part of the province is well wooded with valuable construction timbers and furniture woods. The drainage to the Paraguay is through the Bermejo, whose tributaries cover the northern part of the province; and through the Pasage or Juramento, called Salado on its lower course, whose tributaries cover the southern part of the province and whose waters are discharged into the Parana. The climate is hot, and the year is divided into a wet and a dry season, the latter characterized by extreme aridity. Irrigation is necessary in a great part of the province, though the rainfall is abundant in the wet season, about 21 in. Fever and ague, locally called chucho, is prevalent on the lowlands, but in the mountain districts the climate is healthy. There is considerable undeveloped mineral wealth, including gold, silver and copper, but its inhabitants are almost exclusively agriculturist. Its principal products are sugar, rum (aguardiente), wine, wheat, Indian corn, barley, tobacco, alfalfa and coffee. The Cafayate wines are excellent, but are chiefly consumed in the province. SALTA— SALT-CELLAR 91 Various tropical fruits are produced in abundance, but are not sent to market on account of the cost of transportation. Stock- raising is carried on to a limited extent for the home and Bolivian markets. The province is traversed by a government railway (the Central Northern) running northward from Tucuman to the Bolivian frontier, with a branch from General Guemes westward to the city of Salta (q.v.), the provincial capital. The principal towns are Oran (1904, 3000) on a small tributary (the Zenta) of the Bermejo, in the northern part of the province, formerly an important depot in the Bolivian trade, and nearly destroyed by earthquakes in 1871 and 1873; Rosario de Lerma (pop. 1904, 2500), 3om. N.W. of Salta in the great Lerma valley; and Rosario de la-Frontera (pop. 1904, 1200) near the Tucuman frontier, celebrated for its hot mineral baths and gambling establishment. Salta was at one time a part of the great Inca empire, which extended southward into Tucuman and Rioja. It was overrun by adventurers after the Spanish conquest. The first Spanish settle- ment within its borders was made by Hernando de Lerma in 1582. Salta was at first governed from Tucuman, but in 1776 was made capital of the northern intendencia, which included Catamarca, Jujuy and Tucuman. After the War of Independence there was a new division, and Salta was given its present boundaries with the exception of the disputed territory on the Chilean frontier, now the territory of Los Andes. SALTA, a city of Argentina, capital of a province of the same name, and see of a bishopric, on a small tributary (the Arias) of the Pasage, or Juramento, 976 m. by rail N.N.W. of Buenos Aires. Pop. (1904, estimated) 18,000. Salta is built on an open plain 3560 ft. above the sea, nearly enclosed with mountains. The climate is warm and changeable, malarial in summer. The city is laid out regularly, with broad, paved streets and several parks. Some of the more important public buildings face on the plaza mayor. There are no manufactures of importance. Salta was once largely interested in the Bolivian trade, and is still a chief distributing centre for the settlements of the Andean plateau. Near the city is the battlefield where General Belgrano won the first victory from the Spanish forces (1812) in the War of Independence. There is a large mestizo element in the popula- tion, and the Spanish element still retains many of the character- istics of its colonial ancestors. In Salta Spanish is still spoken with the long-drawn intonations and melodious " 11 " of southern Spain. Salta was founded in 1582 by Governor Abreu under the title of San Clemente de Nueva Sevilla, but the site was changed two years later and the new settlement was called San Felipe de Lerma. In the 1 7th century the name Salta came into vogue. SALTA (Italian for "Jump!"), a table-game for two intro- duced at the end of the igth century, founded on the more ancient game of Halma. It is played on a board containing too squares, coloured alternately black a